Educational technology

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Educational technology (also called learning technology) is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources."[1] The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology covers the processes and systems of learning and instruction, educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational Technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications and activities.

Contents

[edit] Perspectives and meaning

Educational technology is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word "technology". Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as "smartphones" and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential.

Those who employ educational technologies to explore ideas and communicate meaning are learners or teachers.

Consider the Handbook of Human Performance Technology.[2] The word technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human Performance Technology means "applied science." In other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology." Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but neither necessarily implies physical technology. The word technology, comes from the Greek "Techne" which means craft or art. Another word "technique", with the same origin, also may be used when considering the field Educational technology. So Educational technology may be extended to include the techniques of the educator.[citation needed]

A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956 book, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.[3] Bloom's taxonomy is helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected of--and what are the learning goals for-- learners. However, Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technology per se and is more concerned with pedagogical strategies.

According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional (Systems) Design. But few of those listed below as theorists would ever use the term "educational technologist" as a term to describe themselves, preferring terms like "educator".[citation needed] The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and Whitaker.[4]

[edit] History

One comprehensive history of the field is Saettler's The evolution of American educational technology.[5] Another worthy title is Larry Cuban'sOversold and Underused - Computers in the Classroom.[6]

For several decades, vendors of equipment such as laptop computers and interactive white boards have been claiming that their technologies would transform classrooms and learning in many positive ways, but there has been little evidence provided to substantiate these claims.[citation needed]

To some extent, the history of educational technology has been marked by a succession of innovations that arrive with much fanfare but often fade into the background once fully tested, as Cuban argues in the above title.[citation needed]

[edit] Theories and practices

Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the educational technology literature. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Each of these schools of thought are still present in today's literature but have evolved as the Psychology literature has evolved.

[edit] Behaviorism

This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment with human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many educators.

[edit] Skinner's Contributions

B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of Verbal Behavior,[7] and wrote "The Technology of Teaching",[8] an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education, as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from Keller's and Skinner's models.

[edit] Cognitivism

Cognitive science has changed how educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.

After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory.

[edit] Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the 1990s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environments require students to utilize their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

[edit] Instructional technique and technologies

Problem Based Learning and Inquiry-based learning are active learning educational technologies used to facilitate learning. Technology which includes physical and process applied science can be incorporated into project, problem, inquiry-based learning as they all have a similar educational philosophy. All three are student centered, ideally involving real-world scenarios in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. The process that students are encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical research) is considered to be a technology. Classic examples of technologies used by teachers and Educational Technologists include Bloom's Taxonomy and Instructional Design.

[edit] Theorists

This is an area where new thinkers are coming to the forefront everyday. Many of the ideas spread from theorists, researchers, and experts through their blogs. Extensive lists of educational bloggers by area of interest are available at Steve Hargadon's "SupportBloggers" site or at the "movingforward" wiki started by Scott McLeod.[9] Many of these blogs are recognized by their peers each year through the edublogger awards.[10] Web 2.0 technologies have led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on this topic and the number of educators formally and informally discussing it. Most listed below have been around for more than a decade, however, and few new thinkers mentioned above are listed here.

[edit] Benefits

Educational technology is intended to improve education over what it would be without technology. Some of the claimed benefits are listed below:

  • Easy-to-access course materials. Instructors can post the course material or important information on a course website, which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and can obtain the study material very quickly[22]
  • Student motivation. Computer-based instruction can give instant feedback to students and explain correct answers. Moreover, computer is patient and non-judgmental, which can give the student motivation to continue learning. According to James Kulik, who studies effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes[23]
  • Wide participation. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible[24]
  • Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors, which in turn improves the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know[22]
  • Subjects made easier to learn. Many different types of educational software are designed and developed to help children or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples include pre-school software, computer simulators, and graphics software[23]
  • A structure that is more amenable to measurement and improvement of outcomes.

[edit] Criticism

[25]

Similarly to learning a new task or trade, there is special training that is involved with adding elements of educational technology to the classroom. Without proper training, teachers and students cannot benefit from devices that will improve the quality of education. Devices are a waste of time and money if teachers are not receiving proper training. [26] Another disadvantage is that if teachers plan on using educational technology, they must come to the classroom prior to start time and set everything up and make sure it is all working.

[edit] Educational technology and the humanities

Research from the Alberta Initiative for School Improvement (AISI) [27] indicates that inquiry and project-based approaches, combined with a focus on curriculum, effectively supports the infusion of educational technologies into the learning and teaching process.


[edit] Technology in the Classroom

  • Computer in the Classroom: Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new programs, and show new websites. [28]
  • Class Website: What better way to display your student's work, then to create a web page designed just for your class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In current day society, children know how to use the computer and navigate their way through a website, so why not give them one where they can be a published author.
  • Wireless Classroom Microphones: Noisy classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones, students are able to hear their teachers clearer. Children learn better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer loose their voices at the end of the day.

[edit] Societies

Learned societies concerned with educational technology include:


[edit] See also

Education portal

[edit] References

  1. ^ Richey, R.C. (2008). Reflections on the 2008 AECT Definitions of the Field. TechTrends. 52(1) 24-25
  2. ^ Handbook of Human Performance Technology (Eds. Harold Stolovich, Erica Keeps, James Pershing)(3rd ed, 2006)
  3. ^ Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.
  4. ^ Shurville, S.; Browne, T., & Whitaker, M. (2008). "Employing the new educational technologists: A call for evidenced change" (PDF). Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/shurville.pdf. 
  5. ^ Saettler, P. (1990), The evolution of American educational technology. Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Englewood California.
  6. ^ Larry Cuban, Oversold and Underused - Computers in the Classroom. Harvard University Press, 2001.
  7. ^ Skinner, B.F. The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 1954, 24, 86-97., Teaching machines. Science, 1958, 128, 969-77. and others see http://www.bfskinner.org/f/EpsteinBibliography.pdf
  8. ^ Skinner BF (1965). "The technology of teaching". Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 162 (989): 427–43. doi:10.1098/rspb.1965.0048. PMID 4378497. 
  9. ^ See http://supportblogging.com/Links+to+School+Bloggers and http://movingforward.wikispaces.com/Blogs
  10. ^ » Welcome to the Eddies! The Edublog Awards
  11. ^ HallDavidson.net
  12. ^ Dr. Tomei's Educator Index of Web-Based Resources
  13. ^ The Fischbowl
  14. ^ http://www.ianjukes.com
  15. ^ FNO educational technology students schools libraries teachers parents staff development
  16. ^ Scott McLeod - Home - www.scottmcleod.net
  17. ^ Professor Seymour Papert
  18. ^ Welcome to Stager.org!
  19. ^ NeverEndingSearch - Blog on School Library Journal
  20. ^ http://davidwarlick.com/
  21. ^ David Marcovitz
  22. ^ a b Technology Impact on Learning
  23. ^ a b Technology's Impact
  24. ^ Technology Uses in Education
  25. ^ Cordes, Colleen & Miller, Edward. (1999),"Fool's Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood"
  26. ^ http://www.education-world.com/a_tech/tech/tech086.shtml
  27. ^ AISI Technology Projects Research Review
  28. ^ http://www.thejournal.com/articles/15769

[edit] Other

[edit] Further reading

Sister project Look up educational technology in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

[edit] Journals

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