Essenes

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The Essenes (Greek Εσσηνοι or Εσσαιοι) were a Jewish religious group that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. Being much fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees (the other two major sects at the time) the Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to asceticism, voluntary poverty, and abstinence from worldly pleasures, including sex. Many separate but related religious groups of that era shared similar mystic, eschatological, messianic, and ascetic beliefs. These groups are collectively referred to by various scholars as the "Essenes."

The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, commonly believed to be their library. These documents include preserved multiple copies of the Hebrew Bible untouched from as early as 300 BCE until their discovery in 1946. Some scholars, however, dispute the notion that the Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. One scholar, Rachel Elior, even argues that the group ever existed. [1][2][3]

Contents

[edit] Contemporary ancient sources

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The main source of information about the life and belief of Essenes is Josephus' detailed account entitled The Jewish War[4] and his shorter description in Antiquities of the Jews.[5] Claiming first hand knowledge,[6] he refers to them by the name Essenoi and lists them as the followers of one of the three sects in "Jewish Philosophy'"[7] alongside the Pharisees and the Sadducees. The only other known contemporary accounts about the Essenes are two similarly detailed ones by the Jewish philosopher Philo,[8][9] who, however, admits to not being quite certain of the Greek form of their name that he recalls as Essaioi,[10] the brief reference to them by the Roman equestrian Pliny the Elder.[11] Pliny, also a geographer and explorer, located them in the desert near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in the year 1947 by Muhammed edh-Dhib and Ahmed Mohammed, two Bedu shepherds of the Ta'amireh tribe.[12]

[edit] Name

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Josephus uses the name Essenes in his two main accounts[13][14] as well as in some other contexts ("an account of the Essenes";[15] "the gate of the Essenes";[16] "Judas of the Essene race";[17] but some manuscripts read here Essaion; "holding the Essenes in honour";[18] "a certain Essene named Manaemus";[19] "to hold all Essenes in honour";[20] "the Essenes";[21][22][23]). In several places, however, Josephus has Essaios, which is usually assumed to mean Essene ("Judas of the Essaios race";[24] "Simon of the Essaios race";[25] "John the Essaios";[26] "those who are called by us Essaioi";[27] "Simon a man of the Essaios race"[28]). Philo's usage is Essaioi, although he admits this Greek form of the original name that according to his etymology signifies "holiness" to be inexact.[29] Pliny's Latin text has Esseni.[citation needed] Josephus identified the Essenes as one of the three major Jewish sects of that period.[citation needed]

Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within Palestine that also included the Qumran community.[30]

It is possible that the Talmudic statement "the best of the physicians will go to hell"[31] was referring to the Essenes. The Talmudic term for healer is Assia.[32]

It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered that the name came into several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self-designation found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, 'osey hatorah, "observers of torah."[33]

[edit] Location

Remains of living quarters at Qumran.

According to Josephus, the Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town".[34] Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestinian Syria",[10] more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members".[35]

Pliny locates them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast… [above] the town of Engeda".[cite this quote]

Some modern scholars and archaeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support, and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls are the product of the Essenes. This view, though not yet conclusively proven, has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes.

Josephus' reference to a "gate of the Essenes" in his description of the course of "the most ancient" of the three walls of Jerusalem,[36] in the Mount Zion area,[37] perhaps suggests an Essene community living in this quarter of the city or regularly gathering at this part of the Temple precincts.

[edit] Rules, customs, theology and beliefs

The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes led a strictly celibate and communal life – often compared by scholars to later Christian monastic living – although Josephus speaks also of another "rank of Essenes" that did get married.[38] According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership,[39][40] elected a leader to attend to the interests of them all whose orders they obeyed,[41] were forbidden from swearing oaths[42] and sacrificing animals,[43] controlled their temper and served as channels of peace,[42] carried weapons only as protection against robbers,[44] had no slaves but served each other[45] and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading.[46] Both Josephus and Philo have lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious celebrations.

After a total of three years probation,[47] newly joining members would take an oath that included the commitment to practice piety towards "the Deity" (το θειον) and righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a pure life-style, to abstain from criminal and immoral activities, to transmit their rules uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the Angels.[48] Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death.[49][50] Part of their activities included purification by water rituals, which was supported by rainwater catchment and storage.

The Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the fourth century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes:[51] "Of those that came before his [Elxai, an Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the Osseaens and the Nazarean.".[52] Epiphanius describes each group as following:

The Nazarean – they were Jews by nationality – originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordon… They acknowledged Moses and believed that he had received laws – not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Books are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nazarean and the others…[53]

After this [Nazarean] sect in turn comes another closely connected with them, called the Ossaeanes. These are Jews like the former… originally came from Nabataea, Ituraea, Moabitis and Arielis, the lands beyond the basin of what sacred scripture called the Salt Sea… Though it is different from the other six of these seven sects, it causes schism only by forbidding the books of Moses like the Nazarean.[52]

If it is correct to identify the community at Qumran with the Essenes (and that the community at Qumran are the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls), then according to the Dead Sea Scrolls the Essenes' community school was called "Yahad" (meaning "unity") in order to differentiate themselves from the rest of the Jews who are repeatedly labeled "The Breakers of the Covenant".

[edit] Scholarly discussion

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The Essenes are discussed in detail by Josephus and Philo.

Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by Norman Golb and other scholars.

Golb, for instance, uses strong arguments defending that primary research on the Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland de Vaux, from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem) lacked scientific method, originating wrong conclusions that comfortably entered the academic canon. For Golb, the amount of documents is too extensive and includes many different writing styles and calygraphies; the ruins seem to have been a fortress, used as a military basis on a very long period of time – including century I – so that they could not be inhabited by the Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in 1870, just 50 metres east of the Qumran ruins was made of over 1200 tombs that included many women and children – Plinius clearly wrote that "the Essenes that lived near the Dead Sea had no women, had renounced to any sexual desire and no one was born in their race". Golb's book presents sharp observations about de Vaux's premature conclusions and their unargued acceptance in general academic community. He states that the documents probably stemmed from various libraries in Jerusalem, kept safe in the desert from the Roman invasions.[54]

Since the 19th century attempts have been made to connect early Christianity and Pythagoreanism with the Essenes. It was suggested that Jesus of Nazareth was an Essene as many of His teachings directly correspond to similar teachings held by the Essenes. This leads to the concept that Christianity evolved from this sect of Judaism, with which it shared many ideas and symbols. According to Martin A. Larson, the now misunderstood Essenes were Jewish Pythagoreans who lived as monks. As vegetarian celibates in self-reliant communities who shunned marriage and family, they preached a coming war with the Sons of Darkness. As the Sons of Light, this reflected a separate influence from Zoroastrianism via their parent ideology of Pythagoreanism. According to Larson, both the Essenes and Pythagoreans resembled thiasoi, or cult units of the Orphic mysteries. John the Baptist is widely regarded to be a prime example of an Essene who had left the communal life,[55] and it is thought they aspired to emulate their own founding Teacher of Righteousness who was crucified. However, J.B. Lightfoot's essay[51] argues that attempts to find the roots of Essenism in Pythagoreanism and the roots of Christianity in Essenism are flawed. Authors such as Robert Eisenman present differing views that support the Essene/Early Christian connection.

Another issue is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and Therapeutrides. It may be argued[by whom?] that he regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an active life.[56]

One theory on the formation of the Essenes suggested the movement was founded by a Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness, whose office had been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not Zadokite lineage), labeled the "man of lies" or "false priest".[2][3]

[edit] Connections with Kabbalah

According to a Jewish legend, one of the Essenes, named Menachem, had passed at least some of his mystical knowledge to the Talmudic mystic Nehunya ben ha-Kanah,[57] to whom the Kabbalistic tradition attributes Sefer ha-Bahir and, by some opinions, Sefer ha-Kanah, Sefer ha-Peliah and Sefer ha-Temunah. Some Essene rituals, such as daily immersion in the Mikvah, coincide with contemporary Hasidic practices; some historians had also suggested, that name "Essene" is an hellenized form of the word "Hasidim" or "Hasin" ("pious ones"). However, the legendary connections between Essene and Kabbalistic tradition are not verified by modern historians.

[edit] Modern and contemporary Essenes

Rev. Gideon Ousely, produced a book that he claimed was Essene in origin known as the Gospel of the Holy Twelve (which he claimed was translated from Essene texts hidden in a Tibetan monastery, and partially channeled to him by angels.)[citation needed] Dr. Edmund Bordeaux Szekely is another modern pseudo-Essene. These individuals assert that the Essene teachings had been hidden and assimilated into many mystical spiritual traditions around the world, where the teachings were hidden within ancient libraries. It was in 1928 that Edmond Bordeaux Szekely first published his translation of The Essene Gospel of Peace, a manuscript allegedly discovered in the Secret Archives of the Vatican and in old Slavonic in the Royal Library of the Habsburgs of which much was destroyed by a fire that destroyed the monastery that stood in its place. (now the property of the Austrian government) However, subsequent investigations into the claims of these individuals produced nothing to substantiate their stories. Biblical scholars don't consider the Szekely or Ousely writings as authentic.[citation needed]

Currently there are several modern Essene Groups around the world.[citation needed]

J. Gordon Melton states that the modern Pseudo-Essene movement possesses no authentic historical ties to the ancient Essene movement.[58] Melton states, "Essene material is directly derivative of two occult bestsellers – The Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ, by Levi H. Dowling; and The Mystical Life of Jesus, by Rosicrucian author H. Spencer Lewis."[59]

[edit] References

  1. ^ Ilani, Ofri (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1070797.html. Retrieved on 17 March 2009. 
  2. ^ a b McGirk, Tim (16 March 2009). "Scholar Claims Dead Sea Scrolls 'Authors' Never Existed". Time. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1885421,00.html. Retrieved on 17 March 2009. 
  3. ^ a b "Rachel Elior Responds to Her Critics". Jim West. 15 March 2009. http://jwest.wordpress.com/2009/03/15/rachel-elior-responds-to-her-critics/. Retrieved on 17 March 2009. [unreliable source?]
  4. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119-161
  5. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11 & 18-22
  6. ^ Josephus (97c. 97). The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10-11
  7. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119
  8. ^ Philo (20-54c. 20-54). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75-87
  9. ^ Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1–18. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII
  10. ^ a b Philo (20-54c. 20-54). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75
  11. ^ Pliny the Elder (77c. 77). Natural History. 5.73.
  12. ^ Barthélemy, D.; J. T. Milik, Roland de Vaux, G. M. Crowfoot, Harold Plenderleith, George L. Harding (1997) [1955]. "Introductory: The Discovery". Qumran Cave 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-19-826301-5. 
  13. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119, 158, 160
  14. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.171-2
  15. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.298
  16. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 5.145
  17. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.311
  18. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.372
  19. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.373
  20. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.378
  21. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11
  22. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18
  23. ^ Josephus (97c. 97). The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10
  24. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. I.78
  25. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.113
  26. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.567; 3.11
  27. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.371
  28. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 17.346
  29. ^ Pliny the Elder (77c. 77). Natural History. XII.75.
  30. ^ Boccaccini, Gabriele (1998). Beyond the Essene hypothesis: the parting of the ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 47. ISBN 0-8028-4360-3. OCLC 37837643. 
  31. ^ Kiddushin Ch. 4[verification needed]
  32. ^ Reuvein Margolies Toldot Ha'Adam[verification needed]
  33. ^ Goranson, Stephen (1999). "Others and Intra-Jewish Polemic as Reflected in Qumran Texts". in Peter W. Flint and James C. VanderKam. The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment. 2. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 534–551. ISBN 90-04-11061-5. OCLC 230716707. 
  34. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.124
  35. ^ Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII
  36. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 5.145
  37. ^ cf. map of ancient Jerusalem
  38. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.160–161
  39. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.122
  40. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.20
  41. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.123, 134
  42. ^ a b Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.135
  43. ^ Philo, §75[verification needed]
  44. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.125
  45. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.21
  46. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.127
  47. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.137-138
  48. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.139–142
  49. ^ Josephus (75c. 75). The Wars of the Jews. 2.153-158
  50. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18
  51. ^ a b Lightfoot, Joseph Barber (1875). "On Some Points Connected with the Essenes". St. Paul's epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: a revised text with introductions, notes, and dissertations. London: Macmillan Publishers. OCLC 6150927. 
  52. ^ a b Epiphanius of Salamis (378c. 378). Panarion. 1:19
  53. ^ Epiphanius of Salamis (378c. 378). Panarion. 1:18
  54. ^ Golb, Norman (1996). Who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?: the search for the secret of Qumran. New York City: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80692-4. OCLC 35047608. [page number needed]
  55. ^ Josephus (94c. 94). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.116-119
  56. ^ Philo. De Vita Contemplativa. I.1.
  57. ^ Kaplan, Aryeh (1997) [1990]. Sefer Yetzirah: The book of Creation (2nd ed.). York Beach, Maine: Red Wheel Weiser Conari. xvii. ISBN 0-87728-855-0. OCLC 36017140. 
  58. ^ J. Gordon Melton, The Encyclopedia of American Religions[page number needed]
  59. ^ J. Gordon Melton, The Encyclopedia of American Religions[page number needed][verification needed]

[edit] Further reading

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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