Transposition cipher
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In classical cryptography, a transposition cipher is a method of encryption by which the positions held by units of plaintext (which are commonly characters or groups of characters) are shifted according to a regular system, so that the ciphertext constitutes a permutation of the plaintext. That is, the order of the units is changed. Mathematically a bijective function is used on the characters' positions to encrypt and an inverse function to decrypt.
Following are some implementations.
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[edit] Rail Fence cipher
The Rail Fence cipher is a form of transposition cipher that gets its name from the way in which it is encoded. In the rail fence cipher, the plaintext is written downwards on successive "rails" of an imaginary fence, then moving up when we get to the bottom. The message is then read off in rows. For example, using three "rails" and a message of 'WE ARE DISCOVERED. FLEE AT ONCE', the cipherer writes out:
W . . . E . . . C . . . R . . . L . . . T . . . E . E . R . D . S . O . E . E . F . E . A . O . C . . . A . . . I . . . V . . . D . . . E . . . N . .
Then reads off:
WECRL TEERD SOEEF EAOCA IVDEN
(The cipherer has broken this ciphertext up into blocks of five to help avoid errors.)
[edit] Route cipher
In a route cipher, the plaintext is first written out in a grid of given dimensions, then read off in a pattern given in the key. For example, using the same plaintext that we used for rail fence:
W R I O R F E O E E E S V E L A N J A D C E D E T C X
The key might specify "spiral inwards, clockwise, starting from the top right". That would give a cipher text of:
EJXCTEDECDAEWRIORFEONALEVSE
Route ciphers have many more keys than a rail fence. In fact, for messages of reasonable length, the number of possible keys is potentially too great to be enumerated even by modern machinery. However, not all keys are equally good. Badly chosen routes will leave excessive chunks of plaintext, or text simply reversed, and this will give cryptanalysts a clue as to the routes.
An interesting variation of the route cipher was the Union Route Cipher, used by Union forces during the American Civil War. This worked much like an ordinary route cipher, but transposed whole words instead of individual letters. Because this would leave certain highly sensitive words exposed, such words would first be concealed by code. The cipher clerk may also add entire null words, which were often chosen to make the ciphertext humorous. See [1] for an example.
[edit] Columnar transposition
In a columnar transposition, the message is written out in rows of a fixed length, and then read out again column by column, and the columns are chosen in some scrambled order. Both the width of the rows and the permutation of the columns are usually defined by a keyword. For example, the word ZEBRAS is of length 6 (so the rows are of length 6), and the permutation is defined by the alphabetical order of the letters in the keyword. In this case, the order would be "6 3 2 4 1 5".
In a regular columnar transposition cipher, any spare spaces are filled with nulls; in an irregular columnar transposition cipher, the spaces are left blank. Finally, the message is read off in columns, in the order specified by the keyword. For example, suppose we use the keyword ZEBRAS and the message WE ARE DISCOVERED. FLEE AT ONCE. In a regular columnar transposition, we write this into the grid as:
6 3 2 4 1 5 W E A R E D I S C O V E R E D F L E E A T O N C E Q K J E U
Providing five nulls (QKJEU) at the end. The ciphertext is then read off as:
EVLNE ACDTK ESEAQ ROFOJ DEECU WIREE
In the irregular case, the columns are not completed by nulls:
6 3 2 4 1 5 W E A R E D I S C O V E R E D F L E E A T O N C E
This results in the following ciphertext:
EVLNA CDTES EAROF ODEEC WIREE
To decipher it, the recipient has to work out the column lengths by dividing the message length by the key length. Then he can write the message out in columns again, then re-order the columns by reforming the key word.
Columnar transposition continued to be used for serious purposes as a component of more complex ciphers at least into the 1950's.
[edit] Double transposition
A single columnar transposition could be attacked by guessing possible column lengths, writing the message out in its columns (but in the wrong order, as the key is not yet known), and then looking for possible anagrams. Thus to make it stronger, a double transposition was often used. This is simply a columnar transposition applied twice. The same key can be used for both transpositions, or two different keys can be used.
As an example, we can take the result of the irregular columnar transposition in the previous section, and perform a second encryption with a different keyword, STRIPE, which gives the permutation "564231":
5 6 4 2 3 1 E V L N A C D T E S E A R O F O D E E C W I R E E
As before, this is read off columnwise to give the ciphertext:
CAEEN SOIAE DRLEF WEDRE EVTOC
During World War I, the German military used a double columnar transposition cipher. The system was regularly solved by the French, naming it Übchi, who were typically able to find the key in a matter of days after a new one had been introduced. However, the French success became widely-known and, after a publication in Le Matin, the Germans changed to a new system on 18 November 1914.[1]
During World War II, the double transposition cipher was used by Dutch Resistance groups, the French Maquis and the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), which was in charge of managing underground activities in Europe.[2] It was also used by agents of the American Office of Strategic Services[3] and as an emergency cipher for the German Army and Navy.
Until the invention of the VIC cipher, double transposition was generally regarded as the most complicated cipher that an agent could operate reliably under difficult field conditions.
[edit] Myszkowski transposition
A variant form of columnar transposition, proposed by Émile Victor Théodore Myszkowski in 1902, requires a keyword with recurrent letters. In usual practice, subsequent occurrences of a keyword letter are treated as if the next letter in alphabetical order, e.g., the keyword TOMATO yields a numeric keystring of "532164."
In Myszkowski transposition, recurrent keyword letters are numbered identically, TOMATO yielding a keystring of "432143."
4 3 2 1 4 3 W E A R E D I S C O V E R E D F L E E A T O N C E
Plaintext columns with unique numbers are transcribed downward; those with recurring numbers are transcribed left to right:
ROFOA CDTED SEEEA CWEIV RLENE
[edit] Disrupted transposition
In a disrupted transposition, certain positions in a grid are blanked out, and not used when filling in the plaintext. This breaks up regular patterns and makes the cryptanalyst's job more difficult.
[edit] Grilles
Another form of transposition cipher uses grilles, or physical masks with cut-outs, rather than a mathematical algorithm. This can produce a highly irregular transposition over the period specified by the size of the grille, but requires the correspondents to keep a physical key secret. Grilles were first proposed in 1550, and were still in military use for the first few months of World War One.
[edit] Detection and cryptanalysis
Since transposition does not affect the frequency of individual symbols, simple transposition can be easily detected by the cryptanalyst by doing a frequency count. If the ciphertext exhibits a frequency distribution very similar to plaintext, it is most likely a transposition. This can then often be attacked by anagramming - sliding pieces of ciphertext around, then looking for sections that look like anagrams of English words, and solving the anagrams. Once such anagrams have been found, they reveal information about the transposition pattern, and can consequently be extended.
Simpler transpositions also often suffer from the property that keys very close to the correct key will reveal long sections of legible plaintext interspersed by gibberish. Consequently such ciphers may be vulnerable to optimum seeking algorithms such as genetic algorithms.
[edit] Combinations
Transposition is often combined with other techniques. For example, a simple substitution cipher combined with a columnar transposition avoids the weakness of both. Replacing high frequency ciphertext symbols with high frequency plaintext letters does not reveal chunks of plaintext because of the transposition. Anagramming the transposition does not work because of the substitution. The technique is particularly powerful if combined with fractionation (see below). A disadvantage is that such ciphers are considerably more laborious and error prone than simpler ciphers.
[edit] Fractionation
Transposition is particularly effective when employed with fractionation - that is, a preliminary stage that divides each plaintext symbol into several ciphertext symbols. For example, the plaintext alphabet could be written out in a grid, then every letter in the message replaced by its co-ordinates (see Polybius square). Another method of fractionation is to simply convert the message to Morse code, with a symbol for spaces as well as dots and dashes.
When such a fractionated message is transposed, the components of individual letters become widely separated in the message, thus achieving Claude E. Shannon's diffusion. Examples of ciphers that combine fractionation and transposition include the bifid cipher, the trifid cipher, the ADFGVX cipher and the VIC cipher.
Another choice would be to replace each letter with its binary representation, transpose that, and then convert the new binary string into the corresponding ASCII characters. Looping the scrambling process on the binary string multiple times before changing it into ASCII characters would likely make it harder to break. Many modern block ciphers use more complex forms of transposition related to this simple idea.
[edit] Notes
[edit] References
- Kahn, David. The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing. Rev Sub. Scribner, 1996.
[edit] See also
- Permutation cipher
- Substitution cipher
- Ban (information) With Centiban table
- Topics in cryptography
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