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Muhammad Iqbal

Islamic Philosophy Modern era
Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal علامہ محمد اقبال
Full name	Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal
School/tradition	Islamic philosophy
Main interests	poetry, philosophy
Notable ideas	Two-Nation Theory
Influenced by Aristotle, Rumi, Goethe, Nietzsche
Influenced Pakistan Movement, Ali Shariati, Khalilollah Khalili, Jawdat Said

Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal (Urdu: محمد اقبال; November 9, 1877 – April 21, 1938) was a Muslim poet, philosopher and politician born in Sialkot, British India (now in Pakistan), whose poetry in Urdu, Arabic and Persian is considered to be among the greatest of the modern era,^[1] and whose vision of an independent state for the Muslims of British India was to inspire the creation of Pakistan. He is commonly referred to as Allama Iqbal (علامہ اقبال‎, Allama meaning "Scholar".)

After studying in England and Germany, Iqbal established a law practice, but concentrated primarily on writing scholarly works on politics, economics, history, philosophy and religion. He is best known for his poetic works, including Asrar-e-Khudi—which brought a knighthood— Rumuz-e-Bekhudi, and the Bang-e-Dara, with its enduring patriotic song Tarana-e-Hind. In India, he is regarding for the patriotic song, Saare Jahan Se Achcha (सारे जहाँ से अच्छा). In Afghanistan and Iran, where he is known as Iqbāl-e Lāhorī (اقبال لاہوری‎ Iqbal of Lahore), he is highly regarded for his Persian works.

Iqbal was a strong proponent of the political and spiritual revival of Islamic civilisation across the world, but specifically in India; a series of famous lectures he delivered to this effect were published as The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. One of the most prominent leaders of the All India Muslim League, Iqbal encouraged the creation of a "state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims" in his 1930 presidential address.^[2] Iqbal encouraged and worked closely with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and he is known as Muffakir-e-Pakistan ("The Thinker of Pakistan"), Shair-e-Mashriq ("The Poet of the East"), and Hakeem-ul-Ummat ("The Sage of Ummah"). He is officially recognized as the national poet of Pakistan.^[3] The anniversary of his birth (یوم ولادت محمد اقبال‎ - Yōm-e Welādat-e Muḥammad Iqbāl) on November 9 is a national holiday in Pakistan.

Contents 1 Early life 2 Literary career 2.1 Works in Persian 2.2 Works in Urdu 3 Political career 3.1 Revival of Islamic polity 3.2 Relationship with Jinnah 4 Death 5 Influence and Legacy 6 Criticism 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Early life

Sheikh Muhammad Iqbal was born in Sialkot, Punjab, British India (now part of Pakistan); the eldest of five siblings in a Kashmiri family. It is believed that Iqbal's family were originally Hindu Brahmins, but became Muslim following his ancestor Sahaj Ram Sapru's conversion to Islam, although this version is disputed by some scholars^[who?].^[4][5] Iqbal's father Shaikh Nur Muhammad was a prosperous tailor, well-known for his devotion to Islam, and the family raised their children with deep religious grounding.

Iqbal was educated initially by tutors in languages and writing, history, poetry and religion. His potential as a poet and writer was recognised by one of his tutors, Sayyid Mir Hassan, and Iqbal would continue to study under him at the Scotch Mission College in Sialkot. The student became proficient in several languages and the skill of writing prose and poetry, and graduated in 1892. Following custom, at the age of 15 Iqbal's family arranged for him to be married to Karim Bibi, the daughter of an affluent Gujrati physician. The couple had two children: a daughter, Mi'raj Begam (born 1895) and a son, Aftab (born 1899). Iqbal's third son died soon after birth. The husband and wife were unhappy in their marriage and eventually divorced in 1916.

Iqbal entered the Government College in Lahore where he studied philosophy, English literature and Arabic and obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree, graduating cum laude. He won a gold medal for topping his examination in philosophy. While studying for his masters degree, Iqbal came under the wing of Sir Thomas Arnold, a scholar of Islam and modern philosophy at the college. Arnold exposed the young man to Western culture and ideas, and served as a bridge for Iqbal between the ideas of East and West. Iqbal was appointed to a readership in Arabic at the Oriental College in Lahore, and he published his first book in Urdu, The Knowledge of Economics in 1903. In 1905 Iqbal published the patriotic song, Tarana-e-Hind (Song of India).

At Sir Thomas's encouragement, Iqbal travelled to and spend many years studying in Europe. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from Trinity College at Cambridge in 1907, while simultaneously studying law at Lincoln's Inn, from where he qualified as a barrister in 1908. Iqbal also met a Muslim student, Atiyah Faizi in 1907, and had a close relationship with her. In Europe, he started writing his poetry in Persian as well. Throughout his life, Iqbal would prefer writing in Persian as he believed it allowed him to fully express philosophical concepts, and it gave him a wider audience.^[1] It was while in England that he first participated in politics. Following the formation of the All-India Muslim League in 1906, Iqbal was elected to the executive committee of its British chapter in 1908. Together with two other politicians, Syed Hassan Bilgrami and Syed Ameer Ali, Iqbal sat on the subcommittee which drafted the constitution of the League. Working under the supervision of Friedrich Hommel, Iqbal published a thesis titled: The Development of Metaphysics in Persia.^[6]

[edit] Literary career

Upon his return to India in 1908, Iqbal took up assistant professorship at the Government College in Lahore, but for financial reasons he relinquished it within a year to practise law. During this period, Iqbal's personal life was in turmoil. He divorced Karim Bibi in 1916, but provided financial support to her and their children for the rest of his life.

While maintaining his legal practise, Iqbal began concentrating on spiritual and religious subjects, and publishing poetry and literary works. He became active in the Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam, a congress of Muslim intellectuals, writers and poets as well as politicians, and in 1919 became the general secretary of the organisation. Iqbal's thoughts in his work primarily focused on the spiritual direction and development of human society, centred around experiences from his travel and stay in Western Europe and the Middle East. He was profoundly influenced by Western philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson and Goethe, and soon became a strong critic of Western society's separation of religion from state and what he perceived as its obsession with materialist pursuits.

The poetry and philosophy of Mawlana Rumi bore the deepest influence on Iqbal's mind. Deeply grounded in religion since childhood, Iqbal would begin intensely concentrating on the study of Islam, the culture and history of Islamic civilization and its political future, and embrace Rumi as "his guide." Iqbal would feature Rumi in the role of a guide in many of his poems, and his works focused on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization, and delivering a message of a pure, spiritual focus on Islam as a source for socio-political liberation and greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and amongst Muslim nations, and frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community, or the Ummah.^[3]

[edit] Works in Persian

Iqbal's poetic works are written mostly in Persian rather than Urdu. Among his 12,000 verses of poem, about 7,000 verses are in Persian. In 1915, he published his first collection of poetry, the Asrar-e-Khudi (Secrets of the Self) in Persian. The poems delve into concepts of ego and emphasise the spirit and self from a religious, spiritual perspective. Many critics have called this Iqbal's finest poetic work.^[7] In Asrar-e-Khudi, Iqbal has explained his philosophy of "Khudi," or "Self." He proves by various means that the whole universe obeys the will of the "Self." Iqbal condemns self-destruction. For him the aim of life is self-realization and self-knowledge. He charts the stages through which the "Self" has to pass before finally arriving at its point of perfection, enabling the knower of the "Self" to become the viceregent of Allah.^[3]

In his Rumuz-e-Bekhudi (Hints of Selflessness), Iqbal seeks to prove that Islamic way of life is the best code of conduct for a nation's viability. A person must keep his individual characteristics intact but once this is achieved he should sacrifice his personal ambitions for the needs of the nation. Man cannot realise the "Self" out of society. Also in Persian and published in 1917, this group of poems has as its main themes the ideal community, Islamic ethical and social principles and the relationship between the individual and society. Although he is true throughout to Islam, Iqbal recognises also the positive analogous aspects of other religions. The Rumuz-e-Bekhudi complements the emphasis on the self in the Asrar-e-Khudi and the two collections are often put in the same volume under the title Asrar-e-Rumuz (Hinting Secrets), and it is addressed to the world's Muslims. Iqbal sees the individual and his community as reflections of each other. The individual needs to be strengthened before he can be integrated into the community, whose development in turn depends on the preservation of the communal ego. It is through contact with others that an ego learns to accept the limitations of its own freedom and the meaning of love. Muslim communities must ensure order in life and must therefore preserve their communal tradition. It is in this context that Iqbal sees the vital role of women, who as mothers are directly responsible for inculcating values in their children.

Iqbal's 1924 publication, the Payam-e-Mashriq (The Message of the East) is closely connected to the West-östlicher Diwan by the famous German poet Goethe. Goethe bemoaned that the West had become too materialistic in outlook and expected that the East would provide a message of hope that would resuscitate spiritual values. Iqbal styles his work as a reminder to the West of the importance of morality, religion and civilization by underlining the need for cultivating feeling, ardour and dynamism. He explains that an individual could never aspire for higher dimensions unless he learns of the nature of spirituality.^[3] In his first visit to Afghanistan, he presented his book "Payam-e Mashreq" to King Amanullah Khan in which he admired the liberal movements of Afghanistan against the British Empire. In 1933, he was officially invited to Afghanistan to join the meetings regarding the establishment of Kabul University.

The Zabur-e-Ajam (Persian Psalms), published in 1927, includes the poems Gulshan-e-Raz-e-Jadeed (Garden of New Secrets) and Bandagi Nama (Book of Slavery). In Gulshan-e-Raz-e-Jadeed, Iqbal first poses questions, then answers them with the help of ancient and modern insight and shows how it effects and concerns the world of action. Bandagi Nama denounces slavery by attempting to explain the spirit behind the fine arts of enslaved societies. Here as in other books, Iqbal insists on remembering the past, doing well in the present and preparing for the future, emphasising love, enthusiasm and energy to fill the ideal life.^[3] Iqbal's 1932 work, the Javed Nama (Book of Javed) is named after and in a manner addressed to his son, who is featured in the poems, and follows the examples of the works of Ibn Arabi and Dante's The Divine Comedy, through mystical and exaggerated depiction across time. Iqbal depicts himself as Zinda Rud ("A stream full of life") guided by Rumi, "the master," through various heavens and spheres, and has the honour of approaching divinity and coming in contact with divine illuminations. In a passage re-living a historical period, Iqbal condemns the Muslim traitors who were instrumental in the defeat and death of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula of Bengal and Tipu Sultan of Mysore respectively by betraying them for the benefit of the British colonists, and thus delivering their country to the shackles of slavery. At the end, by addressing his son Javid, he speaks to the young people at large, and provides guidance to the "new generation."^[3]

His love to Persian language is evident in his works and poetry. He says in one of his poems:^[8]

گرچہ اردو در عذوبت شکر است

garche Urdu dar uzūbat shakar ast

لیک پارسی ام ز ہندی شیرینتر است

lék Pārsī-am ze Hindi shīrīntar ast

Translation:

Even though in sweetness Urdu* is sugar - (but) My Persian is sweeter than Hindi*

• Note: In Iqbal's time the terms Hindi and Urdu were synonyms (see Hindustani)

[edit] Works in Urdu

Iqbal's first work published in Urdu, the Bang-e-Dara (The Call of the Marching Bell) of 1924, was a collection of poetry written by him in three distinct phases of his life.^[3] The poems he wrote up to 1905, the year Iqbal left for England imbibe patriotism and imagery of landscape, and includes the Tarana-e-Hind (The Song of India), popularly known as Saare Jahan Se Achcha and another poem Tarana-e-Milli (Anthem of the (Muslim) Community), which was composed in the same metre and rhyme scheme as Saare Jahan Se Achcha. The second set of poems date from between 1905 and 1908 when Iqbal studied in Europe and dwell upon the nature of European society, which he emphasized had lost spiritual and religious values. This inspired Iqbal to write poems on the historical and cultural heritage of Islamic culture and Muslim people, not from an Indian but a global perspective. Iqbal urges the global community of Muslims, addressed as the Ummah to define personal, social and political existence by the values and teachings of Islam. Poems such as Tulu'i Islam (Dawn of Islam) and Khizr-e-Rah (The Guided Path) are especially acclaimed.

Iqbal preferred to work mainly in Persian for a predominant period of his career, but after 1930, his works were mainly in Urdu. The works of this period were often specifically directed at the Muslim masses of India, with an even stronger emphasis on Islam, and Muslim spiritual and political reawakening. Published in 1935, the Bal-e-Jibril (Wings of Gabriel) is considered by many critics as the finest of Iqbal's Urdu poetry, and was inspired by his visit to Spain, where he visited the monuments and legacy of the kingdom of the Moors. It consists of ghazals, poems, quatrains, epigrams and carries a strong sense religious passion.^[3]

The Pas Cheh Bayed Kard ai Aqwam-e-Sharq (What are we to do, O Nations of the East?) includes the poem Musafir (Traveller). Again, Iqbal depicts Rumi as a character and an exposition of the mysteries of Islamic laws and Sufi perceptions is given. Iqbal laments the dissension and disunity among the Indian Muslims as well as Muslim nations. Musafir is an account of one of Iqbal's journeys to Afghanistan, in which the Pashtun people are counseled to learn the "secret of Islam" and to "build up the self" within themselves.^[3] Iqbal's final work was the Armughan-e-Hijaz (The Gift of Hijaz), published posthumously in 1938. The first part contains quatrains in Persian, and the second part contains some poems and epigrams in Urdu. The Persian quatrains convey the impression as though the poet is travelling through the Hijaz in his imagination. Profundity of ideas and intensity of passion are the salient features of these short poems. The Urdu portion of the book contains some categorical criticism of the intellectual movements and social and political revolutions of the modern age.

[edit] Political career

While dividing his time between law and poetry, Iqbal had remained active in the Muslim League. He supported Indian involvement in World War I, as well as the Khilafat movement and remained in close touch with Muslim political leaders such as Maulana Mohammad Ali and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He was a critic of the mainstream Indian National Congress, which he regarded as dominated by Hindus and was disappointed with the League when during the 1920s, it was absorbed in factional divides between the pro-British group led by Sir Muhammad Shafi and the centrist group led by Jinnah.

In November 1926, with the encouragement of friends and supporters, Iqbal contested for a seat in the Punjab Legislative Assembly from the Muslim district of Lahore, and defeated his opponent by a margin of 3,177 votes.^[9] He supported the constitutional proposals presented by Jinnah with the aim of guaranteeing Muslim political rights and influence in a coalition with the Congress, and worked with the Aga Khan and other Muslim leaders to mend the factional divisions and achieve unity in the Muslim League.

[edit] Revival of Islamic polity

Iqbal's second book in English, the Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, is a collection of his six lectures which he delivered at Madras, Hyderabad and Aligarh; first published as a collection in Lahore, in 1930. These lectures dwell on the role of Islam as a religion as well as a political and legal philosophy in the modern age. In these lectures Iqbal firmly rejects the political attitudes and conduct of Muslim politicians, whom he saw as morally-misguided, attached to power and without any standing with Muslim masses. Iqbal expressed fears that not only would secularism weaken the spiritual foundations of Islam and Muslim society, but that India's Hindu-majority population would crowd out Muslim heritage, culture and political influence. In his travels to Egypt, Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey, he promoted ideas of greater Islamic political co-operation and unity, calling for the shedding of nationalist differences. He also speculated on different political arrangements to guarantee Muslim political power; in a dialogue with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Iqbal expressed his desire to see Indian provinces as autonomous units under the direct control of the British government and with no central Indian government. He envisaged autonomous Muslim provinces in India. Under one Indian union he feared for Muslims, who would suffer in many respects especially with regard to their existentially separate entity as Muslims.^[9] Sir Muhammad Iqbal was elected president of the Muslim League in 1930 at its session in Allahabad, in the United Provinces as well as for the session in Lahore in 1932. In his presidential address on December 29, 1930, Iqbal outlined a vision of an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces in northwestern India:

"I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated Northwest Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of Northwest India."^[2]

In his speech, Iqbal emphasised that unlike Christianity, Islam came with "legal concepts" with "civic significance," with its "religious ideals" considered as inseparable from social order: "therefore, the construction of a policy on national lines, if it means a displacement of the Islamic principle of solidarity, is simply unthinkable to a Muslim."^[10] Iqbal thus stressed not only the need for the political unity of Muslim communities, but the undesirability of blending the Muslim population into a wider society not based on Islamic principles. He thus became the first politician to articulate what would become known as the Two-Nation Theory — that Muslims are a distinct nation and thus deserve political independence from other regions and communities of India. However, he would not elucidate or specify if his ideal Islamic state would construe a theocracy, even as he rejected secularism and nationalism. The latter part of Iqbal's life was concentrated on political activity. He would travel across Europe and West Asia to garner political and financial support for the League, and he reiterated his ideas in his 1932 address, and during the Third Round-Table Conference, he opposed the Congress and proposals for transfer of power without considerable autonomy or independence for Muslim provinces. He would serve as president of the Punjab Muslim League, and would deliver speeches and publish articles in an attempt to rally Muslims across India as a single political entity. Iqbal consistently criticised feudal classes in Punjab as well as Muslim politicians averse to the League.

[edit] Relationship with Jinnah

Ideologically separated from Congress Muslim leaders, Iqbal had also been disillusioned with the politicians of the Muslim League owing to the factional conflict that plagued the League in the 1920s. Discontent with factional leaders like Sir Muhammad Shafi and Sir Fazl-ur-Rahman, Iqbal came to believe that only Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a political leader capable of preserving this unity and fulfilling the League's objectives on Muslim political empowerment. Building a strong, personal correspondence with Jinnah, Iqbal was an influential force on convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in London, return to India and take charge of the League. Iqbal firmly believed that Jinnah was the only leader capable of drawing Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British and the Congress:

"I know you are a busy man but I do hope you won't mind my writing to you often, as you are the only Muslim in India today to whom the community has right to look up for safe guidance through the storm which is coming to North-West India and, perhaps, to the whole of India."^[11]

There were significant differences between the two men — while Iqbal believed that Islam was the source of government and society, Jinnah was a believer in secular government and had laid out a secular vision for Pakistan where religion would have "nothing to do with the business of the state."^[12] Iqbal had backed the Khilafat struggle; Jinnah had dismissed it as "religious frenzy." And while Iqbal espoused the idea of partitioning Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to hold talks with the Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of Pakistan in 1940. Some historians postulate that Jinnah always remained hopeful for an agreement with the Congress and never fully desired the partition of India.^[13] Iqbal's close correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for Jinnah's embrace of the idea of Pakistan.^[14] Iqbal elucidated to Jinnah his vision of a separate Muslim state in a letter sent on June 21, 1937:

"A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of North-West India and Bengal be considered as nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are."^[9]

Iqbal, serving as president of the Punjab Muslim League, criticised Jinnah's political actions, including a political agreement with Punjabi leader Sir Sikandar Hyat Khan, whom Iqbal saw as a representative of feudal classes and not committed to Islam as the core political philosophy. Nevertheless, Iqbal worked constantly to encourage Muslim leaders and masses to support Jinnah and the League. Speaking about the political future of Muslims in India, Iqbal said:

"There is only one way out. Muslims should strengthen Jinnah's hands. They should join the Muslim League. Indian question, as is now being solved, can be countered by our united front against both the Hindus and the English. Without it, our demands are not going to be accepted. People say our demands smack of communalism. This is sheer propaganda. These demands relate to the defence of our national existence.... The united front can be formed under the leadership of the Muslim League. And the Muslim League can succeed only on account of Jinnah. Now none but Jinnah is capable of leading the Muslims."^[11]

In his views on Muslim political future, Iqbal was at odds with Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, who had opposed the partition of India. Maududi had however, been closer to Iqbal's poetic-philosophy of an ideal Islamic state which would reject secularism and nationalism. After the creation of Pakistan, nine years after Iqbal's death, Jinnah and other League politicians would publicly credit Iqbal as one of the visionaries and founders of the state.

[edit] Death

In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal began suffering from a mysterious throat illness.^[15] He spent his final years working to establish the Idara Dar-ul-Islam, an institution where studies in classical Islam and contemporary social science would be subsidised, and advocating the demand for an independent Muslim state. Iqbal ceased practising law in 1934 and he was granted pension by the Nawab of Bhopal. After suffering for months from his illness, Iqbal died in Lahore in 1938. His tomb is located in the space between the entrance of the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort, and an official guard is maintained there by the Government of Pakistan.

Iqbal is commemorated widely in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of the state. His Tarana-e-Hind is a song that is widely used in India as a patriotic song speaking of communal harmony. His birthday is annually commemorated in Pakistan as Iqbal Day, a national holiday. Iqbal is the namesake of many public institutions, including the Allama Iqbal Medical College, Allama Iqbal Open University and the Allama Iqbal International Airport in Lahore. Government and public organizations have sponsored the establishment of colleges and schools dedicated to Iqbal, and have established the Iqbal Academy to research, teach and preserve the works, literature and philosophy of Iqbal. His son Javid Iqbal has served as a justice on the Supreme Court of Pakistan.

[edit] Influence and Legacy

If we are resolved to describe Islam as a system of superior values, we are obliged, first of all, to acknowledge that we are not the true representatives of Islam.

—Muhammad Iqbal^[16]

Allama Iqbal is regarded as one of the most influential Muslim poet and scholar of the 20th century throughout the Muslim World. His concept of Islamic revival did not only lead to the creation of Pakistan, but also the Iranian Revolution which he had prophesied. His works were also influential during the breaking up of the central Asian former Soviet republics, most of which were Muslim majority. Allama Iqbal's poetry has also been translated into several European languages where his works were amous during the early part of the 20th Century.

He lives on through the various organizations dedicated to his works throughout the world. He lives among Iran as one of the greatest Persian Poets ever, in Pakistan as the greatest Urdu poet of all time and is regarded as the national poet and hero, who was the bases of the creation of the first Muslim Nation. His works have been famously made into songs by various artists from time to time, the most famous being the sufi-rock band 'Junoon'. In India he lives on through his national song 'Sarey Jahan sey acha'.

The International airport at Lahore, the city where he died and is buried, is named after him. He is also featured on Pakistani currency.

[edit] Criticism

Some intellectuals criticised Iqbal for embracing Nietzsche's concept of Übermensch, reflected in Iqbal's descriptions of ego, self, and renewal for Muslim civilization. In her book on Iqbal, the German scholar Annemarie Schimmel defends him from this charge, saying that Iqbal's approval of Sharia as the appropriate set of limits for the self or ego "marks the distinction between Iqbal's Perfect Man and the Nietzschean superman." ^[17]

Iqbal has also been criticised for his advocacy of Islamic political revival and rejection of Western cultural influences. Several scholars have called his poetic descriptions of the true practice of Islam impractical and wrongly dismissive of diverse societies and cultural heritages.^[10] Nonetheless, it is his advocacy of Islamic political revival and his concept of "khudi" or self-esteem that earns him much of his respect in the Muslim world.

While credited and admired as the conceptual founder of Pakistan, Iqbal is criticised by some historians and scholars for implicitly endorsing the incompatibility of Muslims with other religious communities. Some historians and Indian nationalists criticise Iqbal's vision for a Muslim state as specifically implying the denunciation of Hindus and Hinduism, as well as the peaceful co-existence of Hindus and Muslims.^[10] Iqbal was also strongly criticised for advocating on occasions, the division and fragmentation of India. Critics also point to the civil war that led to the secession of East Pakistan in 1971, as well as recent sectarian and religious conflict in Pakistan to suggest that Iqbal's notion of a natural Muslim nation and of Islam as a political, unifying identity was inherently flawed and fanciful.^[10] Despite this criticism, Iqbal is widely credited for his work in encouraging the political rejuvenation and empowerment of Muslims, and as a great poet not only in India and Pakistan, but also in Iran, Afghanistan and Muslim nations in the Middle East.

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Muhammad Iqbal at Kavita Kosh (Iqbal's poetry in Hindi font)
• Iqbal Academy Pakistan
• Allama Iqbal Digital Library
• Allama Iqbal site
• some of his best Urdu poems from Columbia university site
• Works of Iqbal in simlepk site
• search Kalame Iqbal with difficult words
• Reconstruction Of Religious Thought In Islam by Allama Iqbal
• Iqbal's views on and his relationship with the Ahmadiyya Movement
• Works by Muhammad Iqbal

Links to related articles v • d • e Muhammad Iqbal Prose The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam · The Development of Metaphysics in Persia · Ilm Al-Iqtisad Poetry Asrar-i-Khudi ("The Secrets of the Self") · Rumuz-i-Bekhudi ("The Secrets of Selflessness") · Payam-i-Mashriq ("Message from the East") · Bang-i-Dara ("The Call Of The Marching Bell") · Zabur-i-Ajam ("Persian Psalms") · Javid Nama · Bal-i-Jibril ("Gabriel's Wing") · Zarb-i-Kalim ("The Rod of the Moses") · Pas Chih Bayad Kard ("What should then be done O people of the East") · Armaghan-i-Hijaz ("Gift from Hijaz") Scholars Annemarie Schimmel · Arthur J. Arberry · R.A. Nicholson · Yousaf Saleem Chishti · Javid Iqbal · Muhammad Munawwar · Suheyl Umar · more Related topics Bibliography (timeline) · Terms · Iqbal Academy · Iqbal Cyber Library v • d • e Pakistan Movement History Honourable East India Company · Indian Rebellion of 1857 · Aligarh Movement · Urdu movement · Partition of Bengal · Lucknow Pact · Khilafat Movement · Nehru Report · Fourteen Points of Jinnah · Allahabad Address · Now or Never pamphlet · Two-Nation Theory · Round Table Conferences · Lahore Resolution · Indian Muslim nationalism · Cabinet Mission · Indian Independence Act · Radcliffe Line · Pakistan · Objectives Resolution · Independence · Republic Day Organisations Muslim League · Unionist Muslim League · All India Muslim Students Federation · Khaksars Leaders Syed Ahmed Khan · Muhammad Iqbal · Muhammad Ali Jinnah · Liaquat Ali Khan · Bahadur Yar Jung · Abdur Rab Nishtar · Fatima Jinnah · Choudhary Rahmat Ali · Muhammad Ali Jouhar · Shaukat Ali · A.K. Fazlul Huq · Sikandar Hayat Khan · Zafar Ali Khan · Khawaja Nazimuddin · Abdul Qayyum Khan · Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy · Begum Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan · more Activists Z.A. Suleri · Hameed Nizami · M.A. Zuberi · Altaf Husain · Yusuf Khattak · Shaukat Hayat Khan · Muhammad Asad · more v • d • e Persian literature   Old Behistun Inscription · Old Persian inscriptions   Middle Ayadgar-i Zariran · Dēnkard · Book of Jamasp · Book of Arda Viraf · Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan · Cube of Zoroaster · Shapuregan of Mani · Bundahishn · Greater Bundahishn · Menog-i Khrad · Jamasp Namag  · Pazand  · Counsels of Adarbad Mahraspandan · Dadestan-i Denig  · Zadspram  · Zand-i Vohuman Yasht  · Drakht-i Asurig   Classical 900s–1000s Rūdakī · Daqīqī · Ferdowsī (Šahnāma) · Abu Shakur Balkhi · Bal'ami · Rabia Balkhi · Abusaeid Abolkheir (967–1049) · Avicenna (980–1037) · Unsuri · Asjadi · Kisai Marvazi · Ayyuqi 1000s–1100s Bābā Tāher · Nasir Khusraw (1004–1088) · Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) · Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (1006–1088) · Asadi Tusi · Qatran Tabrizi (1009–1072) · Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092) · Masud Sa'd Salman (1046–1121) · Moezi Neyshapuri · Omar Khayyām (1048–1131) · Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani · Hujwiri · Manuchehri · Ayn-al-Quzat Hamadani (1098–1131) · Uthman Mukhtari · Abu-al-Faraj Runi · Sanai · Mu'izzi · Mahsati Ganjavi 1100s–1200s Hakim Iranshah · Suzani Samarqandi · Ashraf Ghaznavi · Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191) · Adib Sabir · Am'aq · Attār (1142–c.1220) · Khaghani (1120–1190) · Anvari (1126–1189) · Faramarz-e Khodadad · Nizāmī Ganjavi (1141–1209) · Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209) · Shams Tabrizi (d.1248) 1200s–1300s Abu Tahir Tartusi · Najm al-din Razi · Awhadi Maraghai · Shams al-Din Qays Razi · Baha al-din Walad · Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī · Baba Afdal al-Din Kashani · Fakhr al-din Araqi · Mahmud Shabistari (1288–1320s) · Abu'l Majd Tabrizi · Amīr Khosrow (1253–1325) · Sa'adī (Būstān / Golestān) · Bahram-e-Pazhdo · Zartosht Bahram e Pazhdo · Rumi · Homam Tabrizi (1238–1314) · Khwaju Kermani · Sultan Walad 1300s–1400s Ibn Yamin · Shah Ni'matullah Wali · Hāfez (Dīvān) · Abu Ali Qalandar · Fazlallah Astarabadi · Nasimi · Emad al-Din Faqih Kemani 1400s–1500s Ubayd Zakani · Salman Sawaji · Jāmī · Kamal Khujandi · Ahli Shirzi (1454–1535) · Fuzûlî (1483–1556) · Baba Faghani Shirzani 1500s–1600s Vahshi Bafqi (1523–1583) · Urfi Shirazi 1600s–1700s Sa'eb Tabrizi (1607–1670) · Hazin Lāhiji (1692–1766) · Saba Kashani · Bidel Dehlavi (1642–1720) 1700s–1800s Neshat Esfahani · Forughi Bistami (1798–1857) · Mahmud Saba Kashani (1813–1893)   Contemporary Ahmad Kasravi · Mohammad–Taqī Bahār · Sādeq Hedāyat · Forough Farrokhzad · Šāmlū · Khalilollāh Khalilī · Sohrāb Sepehri · Shahriar · Loiq Sherali · Muhammad Iqbal · Parvin E'tesami · Mehdi Akhavan-Sales · Emad Khorasani · Aref Qazvini · Ebrahim Poordavood · Mirzadeh Eshghi · Allameh Tabatabaei · Adib Pishevari · Ashraf Gilani · Javad Nurbakhsh · Golchin Gilani · Gholām–Hossein Sā'edi Contemporary Persian and Classical Persian are the same language, but writers since 1900 are classified as contemporary. The above lists include poets mostly of Persian background but also some of Indic, Turkic and Slavic backgrounds. At one time, Persian was a common cultural language of much of the non-Arabic Islamic world. v • d • e Symbols of Pakistan National symbols of Pakistan Leader · Animal · Anthem · Bird · Document · Emblem · Flag · Flower · Fruit · Language · Monument · National Mosque · Poet · River · Sport · Tree ·

Persondata
NAME	Iqbal, Muhammad, Sir
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	محمد اقبال, मुहम्मद इकबाल
SHORT DESCRIPTION	Indian writer and politician
DATE OF BIRTH	November 9, 1877
PLACE OF BIRTH	Sialkot, Punjab
DATE OF DEATH	April 21, 1938
PLACE OF DEATH	Lahore