Endocrine system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Major endocrine glands. (Male on the left, female on the right.) 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes

The endocrine system is a system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development and puberty, and tissue function and also plays a part in determining mood.^[1] The field of study that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the wider field of internal medicine.

[edit] Function

The endocrine system is an information signal system much like the nervous system. However, the nervous system uses nerves to conduct information, whereas the endocrine system mainly uses blood vessels as information channels. Glands located in many regions of the body release into the bloodstream specific chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones regulate the many and varied functions of an organism, e.g., mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as sending messages and acting on them.

[edit] Types of signaling

The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling.^[2] Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.

[edit] Endocrine

Main article: Endocrine signalling

The endocrine system is made up of a series of ductless glands that produce chemical messages called hormones

A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Typical endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.

[edit] Autocrine

Main article: Autocrine signalling

Other signaling can target the same cell.

[edit] Paracrine

Main article: Paracrine signalling

Paracrine signaling is where the target cell is nearby.

[edit] Juxtacrine

Main article: Juxtacrine signalling

Juxtacrine signals are transmitted along cell membranes via protein or lipid components integral to the membrane and are capable of affecting either the emitting cell or cells immediately adjacent.

[edit] Role in disease

Main article: Endocrine diseases

Diseases of the endocrine system are common,^[3] including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by dysregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack or destruction of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the neck (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.

Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.

Cancer can occur in endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.^[4]

[edit] Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones

This is a table of the glands of the endocrine system, and their secreted hormones.

[edit] Hypothalamus

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone	TRH	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Release thyroid-stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary (primarily) Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone	GnRH	Neuroendocine cells of the Preoptic area	Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
Growth hormone-releasing hormone	GHRH	Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus	Release GH from anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-releasing hormone	CRH	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
Oxytocin		Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people.^[5] and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness).^[6] release breast milk
Vasopressin	ADH or AVP	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Increases permeability of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to water in the nephrons of the kidney, thus increasing water reabsorbtion.
Somatostatin, also growth hormone-inhibiting hormone	SS or GHIH	Neuroendocrine cells of the Periventricular nucleus	Inhibit release of GH and TSH from anterior pituitary
Prolactin inhibiting hormone or Dopamine	PIH or DA	Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus	Inhibit release of prolactin and TSH from anterior pituitary
Prolactin-releasing hormone	PRH		Release prolactin from anterior pituitary

[edit] Pineal body (epiphysis)

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Melatonin (Primarily)	Pinealocytes	antioxidant and causes drowsiness

[edit] Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

[edit] Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Growth hormone	GH	Somatotropes	stimulates growth and cell reproduction Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver
Prolactin	PRL	Lactotropes	milk production in mammary glands sexual gratification after sexual acts
Adrenocorticotropic hormone or corticotropin	ACTH	Corticotropes	synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and androgens) in adrenocortical cells
Lipotropin		Corticotropes	lipolysis and steroidogenesis, stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin	TSH	Thyrotropes	stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Follicle-stimulating hormone	FSH	Gonadotropes	In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary. In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone	LH	Gonadotropes	In female: ovulation In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone

[edit] Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Oxytocin		Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people.^[5] and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness).^[6] release breast milk
Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone	AVP or ADH	Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	retention of water in kidneys moderate vasoconstriction

Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored.

[edit] Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone	MSH	Melanotroph	melanogenesis by melanocytes in skin and hair.

[edit] Thyroid

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Triiodothyronine	T3	Thyroid epithelial cell	potent form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis
Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine	T4	Thyroid epithelial cells	less active form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis, often functions as a prohormone
Calcitonin		Parafollicular cells	Construct bone reduce blood Ca²⁺

[edit] Parathyroid

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Parathyroid hormone	PTH	Parathyroid chief cell	increase blood Ca²⁺: *indirectly stimulate osteoclasts Ca²⁺ reabsorption in kidney activate vitamin D (Slightly) decrease blood phosphate: decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones activate vitamin D

[edit] Heart

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Atrial-natriuretic peptide	ANP	Cardiac myocytes	Reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats
Brain natriuretic peptide	BNP	Cardiac myocytes	(To a lesser degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats

[edit] Striated muscle

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Thrombopoietin	Myocytes	stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets^[7]

[edit] Skin

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D₃)		Inactive form of Vitamin D3

[edit] Adipose tissue

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Leptin (Primarily)	Adipocytes	decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
Estrogens^[8] (mainly Estrone)	Adipocytes

[edit] Stomach

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Gastrin (Primarily)		G cells	Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin		P/D1 cells	Stimulate appetite, secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland
Neuropeptide Y	NPY		increased food intake and decreased physical activity
Secretin		S cells	Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice
Somatostatin		D cells	Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine.^[9]
Histamine		ECL cells	stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin		X cells	Smooth muscle contraction of stomach^[10]

[edit] Duodenum

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Cholecystokinin	I cells	Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant

[edit] Liver

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily)	IGF	Hepatocytes	insulin-like effects regulate cell growth and development
Angiotensinogen and angiotensin		Hepatocytes	vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.
Thrombopoietin		Hepatocytes	stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets^[7]

[edit] Pancreas

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Insulin (Primarily)	β Islet cells	Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects
Glucagon (Also Primarily)	α Islet cells	glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver increases blood glucose level
Somatostatin	δ Islet cells	Inhibit release of insulin^[11] Inhibit release of glucagon^[11] Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.
Pancreatic polypeptide	PP cells	Unknown

[edit] Kidney

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Renin (Primarily)	Juxtaglomerular cells	Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Erythropoietin (EPO)	Extraglomerular mesangial cells	Stimulate erythrocyte production
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃)		Active form of vitamin D3 Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
Thrombopoietin		stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets^[7]

[edit] Adrenal glands

[edit] Adrenal cortex

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol)	zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells	Stimulation of gluconeogenesis Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive
Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone)	Zona glomerulosa cells	Increase blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys (primarily) Potassium and H⁺ secretion in kidney.
Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone)	Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells	Virilization, anabolic

[edit] Adrenal medulla

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily)	Chromaffin cells	Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., digestion) Suppress immune system
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)	Chromaffin cells	Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Increase skeletal muscle readiness.
Dopamine	Chromaffin cells	Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Enkephalin	Chromaffin cells	Regulate pain

[edit] Testes

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Androgens (chiefly testosterone)	Leydig cells	Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.
Estradiol	Sertoli cells	Prevent apoptosis of germ cells^[12]
Inhibin	Sertoli cells	Inhibit production of FSH

[edit] Ovary

These originate either from the ovarian follicle or the corpus luteum.

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Progesterone	Granulosa cells, theca cells	Support pregnancy^[13]: Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm. Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility^[13] Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Other: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation^[14] Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus) Anti-inflammatory Reduce gall-bladder activity^[15] Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin Promote healing by regulating collagen Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen
Androstenedione	Theca cells	Substrate for estrogen
Estrogens (mainly estradiol)	Granulosa cells	Structural: Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate height growth Accelerate metabolism (burn fat) Reduce muscle mass Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Maintain blood vessels and skin Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis: Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation: Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance: Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention Increase growth hormone Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract: Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin: Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer: Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers ^[16] (Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.) Lung function: Promote lung function by supporting alveoli.^[17]
Inhibin	Granulosa cells	Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary

[edit] Placenta (when pregnant)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Progesterone (Primarily)			Support pregnancy^[13]: Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus. Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility^[13] Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone
Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily)			Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen
Human chorionic gonadotropin	HCG	Syncytiotrophoblast	promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.
Human placental lactogen	HPL	Syncytiotrophoblast	increase production of insulin and IGF-1 increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance
Inhibin		Fetal Trophoblasts	suppress FSH

[edit] Uterus (when pregnant)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Prolactin	PRL	Decidual cells	milk production in mammary glands
Relaxin		Decidual cells	Unclear in humans and animals

[edit] See also

[edit] References

^ Collier, Judith. et.al (2006). Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties 7th edn.. Oxford. pp. 350–1. ISBN 0-19-853085-4.
^ University of Virginia - HISTOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
^ Kasper et al. (2005). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill. pp. 2074. ISBN 0-07-139140-1.
^ Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Plieth D, et al (February 2004). "TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia". Science 303 (5659): 848–51. doi:10.1126/science.1090922. PMID 14764882.
^ ^a ^b Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (June 2005). "Oxytocin increases trust in humans" (^{[dead link]} – ^{Scholar search}). Nature 435 (7042): 673–6. doi:10.1038/nature03701. PMID 15931222. http://www.iew.unizh.ch/home/kosfeld/papers/ottrust_nature.pdf.
^ ^a ^b Kraft U (Jun/July 2007). "Rhythm and Blues". Scientific American Mind. http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=C001082B-2B35-221B-641CA6ED64E8BCF3.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kaushansky K (May 2006). "Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors". N Engl J Med. 354 (19): 2034–45. doi:10.1056/NEJMra052706. PMID 16687716.
^ Frühbeck G (July 2004). "The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors". Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents 2 (3): 197–208. doi:10.2174/1568016043356255. PMID 15320786. http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=1568-0169&volume=2&issue=3&spage=197&aulast=Frühbeck.
^ Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin
^ Endo K, Matsumoto T, Kobayashi T, Kasuya Y, Kamata K (February 2005). "Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats" (^{[dead link]} – ^{Scholar search}). J Smooth Muscle Res 41 (1): 35–47. doi:10.1540/jsmr.41.35. PMID 15855738. http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JSTAGE/jsmr/41.35?from=PubMed.
^ ^a ^b Physiology at MCG 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17
^ Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L (May 2000). "Estradiol acts as a germ cell survival factor in the human testis in vitro". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 85 (5): 2057–67. doi:10.1210/jc.85.5.2057. PMID 10843196. http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10843196.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Placental Hormones
^ Physiology at MCG 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13
^ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res 45 (6): 505–12. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0. PMID 3184927.
^ Hormonal Therapy
^ Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID 15298854.

^

[edit] External links

UC Berkeley anatomy lecture on the endocrine system

[0] Collier, Judith. et.al (2006). Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties 7th edn.. Oxford. pp. 350–1. ISBN 0-19-853085-4.

[1] University of Virginia - HISTOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

[2] Kasper et al. (2005). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill. pp. 2074. ISBN 0-07-139140-1.

[3] Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Plieth D, et al (February 2004). "TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia". Science 303 (5659): 848–51. doi:10.1126/science.1090922. PMID 14764882.

[Kosfeld-4] Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (June 2005). "Oxytocin increases trust in humans" (^{[dead link]} – ^{Scholar search}). Nature 435 (7042): 673–6. doi:10.1038/nature03701. PMID 15931222. http://www.iew.unizh.ch/home/kosfeld/papers/ottrust_nature.pdf.

[Kraft-5] Kraft U (Jun/July 2007). "Rhythm and Blues". Scientific American Mind. http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=C001082B-2B35-221B-641CA6ED64E8BCF3.

[Kaushansky2006-6] Kaushansky K (May 2006). "Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors". N Engl J Med. 354 (19): 2034–45. doi:10.1056/NEJMra052706. PMID 16687716.

[7] Frühbeck G (July 2004). "The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors". Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents 2 (3): 197–208. doi:10.2174/1568016043356255. PMID 15320786. http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=1568-0169&volume=2&issue=3&spage=197&aulast=Frühbeck.

[Colorado-8] Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin

[9] Endo K, Matsumoto T, Kobayashi T, Kasuya Y, Kamata K (February 2005). "Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats" (^{[dead link]} – ^{Scholar search}). J Smooth Muscle Res 41 (1): 35–47. doi:10.1540/jsmr.41.35. PMID 15855738. http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JSTAGE/jsmr/41.35?from=PubMed.

[GP5417-10] Physiology at MCG 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17

[11] Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L (May 2000). "Estradiol acts as a germ cell survival factor in the human testis in vitro". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 85 (5): 2057–67. doi:10.1210/jc.85.5.2057. PMID 10843196. http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10843196.

[colostate-12] Placental Hormones

[GeorgiaPhysiology-13] Physiology at MCG 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13

[14] Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res 45 (6): 505–12. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0. PMID 3184927.

[15] Hormonal Therapy

[16] Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID 15298854.

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