Child abuse
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Child abuse is the physical mistreatment of children. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines child maltreatment as any act or series of acts or commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child.[1] Most child abuse happens in a child's home, with a smaller amount occurring in the organizations, schools or communities the child interacts with. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, psychological/emotional abuse, and sexual abuse.
Different jurisdictions have developed their own definitions of what constitutes child abuse for the purposes of removing a child from his/her family and/or prosecuting a criminal charge. The mental health journal states that child abuse is defined as “any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.”
Contents |
[edit] Types
Child abuse can take many forms:[2]
- Neglect, in which the responsible adult fails to adequately provide for various needs, including physical (failure to provide adequate food, clothing, or hygiene), emotional (failure to provide nurturing or affection) or educational (failure to enroll a child in school).
- Physical abuse is physical aggression directed at a child by an adult. It can involve striking, burning, choking or shaking a child, and the distinction between discipline and abuse is often poorly defined. The transmission of toxins to a child through their mother (such as with fetal alcohol syndrome) can also be considered physical abuse in some jurisdictions.
- Child sexual abuse is any sexual act between an adult and a child, including penetration, fondling, exposure to adult sexuality and violations of privacy.
- Psychological abuse, also known as emotional abuse, which can involve belittling or shaming a child, inappropriate or extreme punishment and the withholding of affection.
[edit] Prevalence
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. |
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Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (October 2008) |
According to the (American) National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse, in 1997 neglect represented 54% of confirmed cases of child abuse, physical abuse 22%, sexual abuse 8%, emotional maltreatment 4%, and other forms of maltreatment 12%.[3] According to a UNICEF report on child well-being[4] the United States and the United Kingdom ranked lowest among first world nations with respect to the well being of their children. This study also found that child neglect and child abuse are far more common in single-parent families than in families where both parents are present. Recently a study conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention found that 1 in 50 infants in the United States are victims of nonfatal neglect or abuse.[1] In the US, neglect is defined as the failure to meet the basic needs of children including housing, clothing, food and access to medical care. Researchers found over 91,000 cases of neglect over the course of one year (from October 2005- September 30, 2006) with their information coming from a database of cases verified by protective services agencies.[1]
[edit] Causes
Child abuse is a complex problem which has multiple causes.[5] Understanding the causes of abuse is crucial to addressing the problem of child abuse.[6] Parents who physically abuse their spouses are more likely to physically abuse their children.[7] However, it is difficult to explore the question of whether marital strife is a cause of child abuse, or if both the marital strife and abuse are caused by tendencies in the abuser.[7] It also can be caused if someone is under the influence of harmful substances.
Cultural norms about what constitutes abuse vary widely, and among both professionals and the public, people do not agree on what behaviors constitute abuse.[8] The National Association of Social Workers has issued statements that even the mildest forms of physical punishment lower children's self-esteem, constitute acts of violence, and teach children that physical force is an acceptable way to resolve conflicts.[9] Human service professionals have come to see cultural norms that sanction physical punishment as one of the causes of child abuse, and have undertaken campaigns to redefine such norms.[9]
[edit] Effects
Children with a history of neglect or physical abuse are at risk of developing psychiatric problems,[10][11] or a disorganized attachment style.[12][13][14] Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms,[15] as well as anxiety, depressive, and acting-out symptoms.[16][17] A study by Dante Cicchetti found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants exhibited symptoms of disorganized attachment.[18][19]
Victims of childhood abuse also suffer from different types of physical health problems later on in life. Many reportedly suffer from some type of chronic head, abdominal, pelvic, or muscular pain with no identifiable reason.[20] Even though the majority of childhood abuse victims know or believe that their abuse is, or can be, the cause of different health problems in their adult life, for the great majority their abuse was not directly associated with those problems, indicating that sufferers were most likely diagnosed with other possible causes for their health problems, instead of their childhood abuse.[21]
The effects of child abuse vary, depending on its type. A 2006 study found that childhood emotional and sexual abuse were strongly related to adult depressive symptoms, while exposure to verbal abuse and witnessing of domestic violence had a moderately strong association, and physical abuse a moderate one. For depression, experiencing more than two kinds of abuse exerted synergetically stronger symptoms. Sexual abuse was particularly deleterious in its intrafamilial form, for symptoms of depression, anxiety, dissociation, and limbic irritability. Childhood verbal abuse had a stronger association with anger-hostility than any other type of abuse studied, and was second only to emotional abuse in its relationship with dissociative symptoms. More generally, in the case of 23 of the 27 illnesses listed in the questionnaire of a French INSEE survey, some statistically significant correlation were found between repeated illness and family traumas encountered by the child before the age of 18 years.[22] These relationships show that inequality in terms of illness and suffering is not only social. It has also its origins in the family, where it is associated with the degrees of lasting affective problems (lack of affection, parental discord, the prolonged absence of a parent, or a serious illness affecting either the mother or father) that individuals report having experienced in childhood.
[edit] Treatment
There are a number of treatments available to victims of child abuse.[23] Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy, while developed to treat sexually abused children, is now used for victims of any kind of trauma. It targets trauma-related symptoms in children including Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), clinical depression, and anxiety. It also includes a component for non-offending parents. Several studies have found that sexually abused children undergoing TF-CBT improved more than children undergoing certain other therapies. Data on the effects of TF-CBT for children who experienced only non-sexual abuse was not available as of 2006.[23]
Abuse-focused cognitive behavioral therapy was designed for children who have experienced physical abuse. It targets externalizing behaviors and strengthens prosocial behaviors. Offending parents are included in treatment, to improve parenting skills/practices. It is supported by one randomized study.[23]
Child-parent psychotherapy was designed to improve the child-parent relationship following the experience of domestic violence. It targets trauma-related symptoms in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, including PTSD, aggression, defiance, and anxiety. It is supported by two studies of one sample.[23]
[edit] See also
- Attachment theory
- Complex post-traumatic stress disorder
- Cinderella effect
- Emotional dysregulation
- Subpoena duces tecum
- Subpoena ad testificandum
- Pedophilia
- Youth studies
- Sociology of the family
- Domestic violence
[edit] Footnotes
- ^ a b c Leeb RT; Paulozzi LJ; Melanson C; Simon TR & Arias I (2008-01-01). "Child Maltreatment Surveillance: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/dvp/CMP/CMP-Surveillance.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-20.
- ^ "Child Abuse and Neglect: Types, Signs, Symptoms, Help and Prevention". helpguide.org. http://www.helpguide.org/mental/child_abuse_physical_emotional_sexual_neglect.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-20.
- ^ "Child Abuse and Neglect Statistics". National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse. 1998. http://web.archive.org/web/19980515052303/http://childabuse.org/facts97.html.
- ^ Child Poverty in Respective: An Overview of Child Wellbeing in Rich Countries, UNICEF: Innocenti Research Center, Report Card 7
- ^ V.J. Fontana, "The maltreatment syndrome of children", Pediatr Ann. 1984 Oct;13(10):736-44.
- ^ Byrgen Finkelman, Child abuse: a multidisciplinary survey, Taylor & Francis, 1995, Introduction, p. xvii.
- ^ a b Susan M. Ross, "Risk of physical abuse to children of spouse abusing parents", Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol. 20, No. 7, Jul. 1996, pp. 589-598.
- ^ Helen Noh Anh, "Cultural Diversity and the Definition of Child Abuse", in Child welfare research review, by Richard P. Barth, Jill Duerr Berrick, Neil Gilbert, Columbia University Press, 1994, pp. 28.
- ^ a b A. A. Haeuser, "Banning parental use of physical punishment: Success in Sweden", International Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect, Hamburg, 1990.]
- ^ Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff, J. (1996). "Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning," Child Abuse and Neglect, 20, 549-559
- ^ Malinosky-Rummell, R. & Hansen, D.J. (1993). "Long term consequences of childhood physical abuse," Psychological Bulletin, 114, 68-69
- ^ Lyons-Ruth K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). "Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies." In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment. (pp. 520-554). NY: Guilford Press
- ^ Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.) (1999). Attachment Disorganization. NY: Guilford Press
- ^ Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parents’ Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status. In M.T. Greenberg, D. Ciccehetti, & E.M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention (pp161-184). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
- ^ Carlson, E.A. (1988). "A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment," Child Development, 69, 1107-1128
- ^ Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). "Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 64-73
- ^ Lyons-Ruth, K., Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). "Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom," Child Development, 64, 572-585
- ^ Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1995). "Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants’ attachments to their caregivers." In D. Cicchetti& V. Carlson (Eds), Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 135-157). NY: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E.M., Greenberg, M.T., & Marvin, R.S. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years (pp. 3-50). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Hamnasu Takele, MBA. Impact of Childhood Abuse on Adult Health. Amberton University.
- ^ Hamnasu Takele, MBA. Impact of Childhood Abuse on Adult Health. Amberton University.
- ^ "Study of Living Conditions 1986-1987" INSEE survey with a sample of 13&nsp154 individuals, cf.Menahem G.,Problèmes de l'enfance, statut social et santé des adultes, IRDES, biblio n° 1010, pp. 59-63, Paris.
- ^ a b c d Cohen, J.A.; Mannarino, A.P.; Murray, L.K.; Igelman, R. (2006). "Psychosocial Interventions for Maltreated and Violence-Exposed Children". Journal of Social Issues 62 (4): 737–766. doi:.
[edit] Further reading
- Crosson-Tower, C (2008). Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect. Boston, MA: Pearson Education. ISBN 0205503268. OCLC 150902303.
- Finkelhor, D (2008). Childhood Victimization: Violence, Crime, and Abuse in the Lives of Young People. Oxford, England; New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195342857. OCLC 162501989. http://books.google.com/books?id=IOOgAFQdRPwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0.
- Hoyano, L; Keenan C (2007). Child Abuse: Law and Policy Across Boundaries. Oxford, UK; New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019829946X. OCLC 79004390.
- Turton, Jackie (2008). Child Abuse, Gender, and Society. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0415365058. OCLC 144570871. http://books.google.com/books?id=FDGaTSUXpdsC&printsec=frontcover.
- Korbin, Jill E. (1983). Child abuse and neglect: cross-cultural perspectives. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0520050703. OCLC 144570871.
