Cynicism

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This article is about the current understanding of the word "cynicism". For information on the ancient Greek school of philosophy, see Cynic. For other uses, see Cynic (disambiguation).

Cynicism (Greek: Kυνισμός) originally comprised the various philosophies of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by Antisthenes in about the 4th century BC. The Cynics rejected all conventions, whether of religion, manners, housing, dress, or decency, advocating the pursuit of virtue in a simple and unmaterialistic lifestyle.

By the 19th century, emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to a new and very different understanding of cynicism to mean an attitude of jaded negativity, and a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of other people. Modern cynicism, as a product of mass society, is a distrust toward ethical and social values, especially when there are high expectations concerning society, institutions and authorities which are unfulfilled. Cynicism can manifest itself by frustration, disillusionment and distrust in regard to organizations, authorities and other aspects of society, and can result from a negative evaluation of past experiences.

Contents

[edit] History of cynicism

[edit] Ancient Greece

Main article: Cynic

The classical Greek and Roman Cynics regarded virtue as the only necessity for happiness, and saw virtue as entirely sufficient for attaining happiness. Classical Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness, thus, the title Cynics, derived from the Greek word κύων, ("dog" in English) because they allegedly neglected society, hygiene, family, money, etc, in a manner reminiscent of dogs. They sought to free themselves from conventions; become self-sufficient; and live only in accordance with nature. They rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving money, power, or fame, to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, lives.[1]

The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values, and would criticise the types of behaviours, such as greed, which they viewed as causing suffering. Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led, in the late 18th and early 19th century,[2] to the modern understanding of cynicism as "an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others."[3] This modern definition of cynicism is in marked contrast to the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire."[4]

[edit] Toward modern cynicism

Nearly 2000 years after certain Greek philosophers first embraced classical cynicism, 17th and 18th century writers such as Shakespeare, Swift, and Voltaire, following in the traditions of Geoffrey Chaucer and François Rabelais, used irony, sarcasm, and satire (which had never gone out of fashion) to ridicule human conduct and revive cynicism. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century literary and cinema figures such as Mark Twain, Dorothy Parker, H.L. Mencken, and W.C. Fields used cynicism as way of communicating their low opinions of certain manifestations of human nature. Oscar Wilde described a cynic as "A man who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing". George Orwell defined cynicism as the direct opposite of fanaticism,[5] thus also implying agnosticism as its integral part. By 1930, Bertrand Russell — in the essay On Youthful Cynicism[6] — could describe the extent to which (in his view) cynicism had penetrated parts of Western mass consciousness, and could note particular areas partially deserving of cynicism: religion, country (patriotism), progress, beauty, truth. The first half of the 20th century, with its two World Wars, offered little hope to people wishing to embrace an idealism diametrically opposed to cynicism: seeing fellow-humans as trustworthy, well-intentioned, caring, decent, and honourable.

Modern cynicism is an attitude of distrust toward ethical and social values and a rejection of the need to be socially involved.[7] It is a product of mass society,[8] but one where political engagement has no option but to be cynical.[9] Cynics can be self-righteous about the need to expose hypocrisy: to point out yawning gaps between our ideals and our practice.[10] According to Peter Sloterdijk, modern cynics can be understood as borderline melancholics, who can keep their symptoms of depression under control and yet retain the ability to work, whatever might happen.[11] Alfie Kohn argued that a person's cynicism stems from escaping responsibility, another belief sees cynicism as following sophistication in human psychological development.[12]

In 2005, researchers at Yale University found that children as young as eight years old could discount the statements of others as tarnished with "self-interest".[13]

[edit] Types of cynicism

This section requires expansion.

One can differentiate the following types of cynicism:

[edit] Cynicism in the sense of "animosity"

Accusations of "cynicism" may originate in the negative perceptions and hostile attitudes of individuals concerning others. People who obtain high values on the hostility scale,[14] have low confidence in their fellow humans, and regard them as dishonest, antisocial, immoral and bad.

[edit] Social cynicism

Social cynicism results from excessively high expectations concerning society, institutions and authorities. Unfulfilled expectations lead to disappointment, which releases feelings of disillusionment and betrayal.[15]

[edit] Occupational cynicism

Occupational cynicism consists of cynical attitudes in relation to aspects of one's own work, leading to a loss of pride and respect concerning oneself in relation to one's own work.

[edit] Organizational cynicism

Organizational cynicism manifests itself as a general or specific attitude, characterized by frustration, hopelessness, disillusionment and distrust in regard to economic organizations, managers and/or other aspects of work.[16]

[edit] Cynicism with organisational changes

Pessimism concerning the success of future organisational changes can result from (among other things) negative experiences of previous changes. The organisational-change cynic views people responsible for organisational changes as incompetent or unwilling.[17] [18] [19] [20]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Cynics - The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  2. ^ David Mazella, (2007), The Making of Modern Cynicism, University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-813-92615-7
  3. ^ Cynicism, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth Edition. 2006. Houghton Mifflin Company.
  4. ^ Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, page 231. Simon and Schuster.
  5. ^ George Orwell: Nineteen Eighty-Four
  6. ^ Bertrand Russell: "On Youthful Cynicism", circa 1930. Retrieved 2008-03-25
  7. ^ Luis E. Navia, 1999, The Adventure of Philosophy, page 141.
  8. ^ Jeffrey C. Goldfarb, 1991, The Cynical Society: The Culture of Politics and the Politics of Culture in American Life, page 30. University of Chicago Press
  9. ^ Timothy Bewes, 1997, Cynicism and Postmodernity, page 3. Verso
  10. ^ Mary Midgley, The problem of humbug, in Matthew Kieran, (1998), Media Ethics, page 37, Routledge.
  11. ^ Peter Sloterdijk, (1987), Critique of Cynical Reason, page 5
  12. ^ Alfie Kohn: The brighter side of human nature : altruism and empathy in everyday life New York: Basic Books 1990. ISBN 0465006655
  13. ^ "By the time children are in second grade, they know to take what people say with a grain of salt, particularly when the statement supports the speaker's self-interest, according to a published study by Yale researchers." Compare Psychological Science 16(5): 385-390 (May 2005). "Children Develop Cynicism At An Early Age", in ScienceDaily (May 26, 2005), retrieved 2008-03-25
  14. ^ Cook, W. W.; Medley, D. M. (1954). "Proposed hostility and parasaic virtue scales for the MMPI". Journal of Applied Psychology 38: 414-418. 
  15. ^ Donald L. Kanter and Philip H. Mirvis, (1989). The Cynical Americans - Living and Working in an Age of Discontent and Disillusion. San Francisco
  16. ^ Andersson, L. M.; Bateman, T. S. (1997). "Cynicism in the workplace: Some causes and effects". Journal of Organizational Behavior 18: 449-469. 
  17. ^ Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Austin, J. T. (1994). Organizational cynicism: An initial study. Academy of management best papers proceedings, 269-273.
  18. ^ Reichers, A. E., Wanous, J. P., & Austin, J. T.1997. Understanding and managing cynicism about organizational change. Academy of Management Executive, 11,(1): 48-59
  19. ^ Vance, R. J., Brooks, S. M., & Tesluk, P. E. 1996. Organizational cynicism and change. Working Paper,. Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
  20. ^ Stanley, D.J.; Meyer, J.P., and Topolnytsky, L. (2005). "Employee cynicism and resistance to organizational change". Journal of Business and Psychology 19 (4): 429-459. 

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