Jehovah's Witnesses

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Jehovah's Witnesses
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Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York
Classification Millenarian, Restorationist
Orientation Christian
Polity Hierarchical
Geographical Area Worldwide
Founder Charles Taze Russell (founded Bible Student movement)
Origin 1876: Bible Students founded
1931: Named Jehovah's witnesses
Pennsylvania and New York, USA
Branched from Bible Student movement
Separations See Jehovah's Witnesses
splinter groups
Congregations 103,267
Members 7.1 million
Official Website http://www.watchtower.org
Statistics from 2009 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses
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Jehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist,[1] millenarian[2] Christian religious movement.[3][4] Sociologists of religion have classified the group as an Adventist sect.[5][6] The group emerged from the Bible Student Movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell, with the creation of the Watch Tower Society. It underwent significant organizational changes between 1917 and the 1940s, having its authority structure centralized and its preaching methods brought under greater regimentation.[7][8] The religion today claims an active worldwide membership of approximately 7 million people.[9]

They are most well-known for their door-to-door preaching, and for their refusal of military service and blood transfusions.[10] The religion's stance of conscientious objection to military service has brought it into conflict with governments that conscript citizens for military service,[11][12] and activities of Jehovah's Witnesses have subsequently been banned in some countries.[13] Jehovah's Witnesses have had a major influence on US constitutional law concerning civil liberties and conscientious objection to military service.[14]

Since its inception, the Watch Tower Society has taught that humanity is experiencing the last days of the present world order.[15] In the years leading up to 1914, 1925 and 1975, the Society's publications expressed strong expectations that Armageddon would occur in those years, resulting in surges in membership and subsequent defections.[7]

Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible as the supreme authority for their teachings and practices. Their belief system diverges greatly from traditional Christian theology, which has caused several major Christian denominations to denounce the group as either a cult or sect.[16] Medical ethicists have criticized Jehovah's Witnesses as an authoritarian group for coercing members to reject blood transfusions.[17][18] Former adherents have claimed that the religion demands unquestioning obedience from members,[19] with the consequence of expulsion and shunning facing any who act in disagreement with its doctrines.[20][21]

Part of a series on Jehovah's Witnesses
Demographics
Jehovah's Witnesses by country
Organizational structure
Governing Body
Faithful and Discreet Slave
History
Bible Student movement
Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
Beliefs & Practices
Doctrines
God's name · Eschatology · Blood · Disfellowshipping
Literature
The Watchtower · Awake!
New World Translation
Related people
Watch Tower Presidents
W.H. Conley · C.T. Russell · J.F. Rutherford · N.H. Knorr · F.W. Franz
M.G. Henschel · D.A. Adams
Formative influences
William Miller · N.H. Barbour · Jonas Wendell · George Storrs · Henry Grew
Notable Former Jehovah's Witnesses
Raymond Franz · Olin R. Moyle · Jerry Bergman
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Contents

History

See main article: History of Jehovah's Witnesses
See also: Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine
Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)

1879-1916: Charles Taze Russell and the Bible Students

From the early 1870s, Charles Taze Russell studied the Bible with a group of Millerist Adventists, including George Storrs and George Stetson, and from 1874, Russell jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning, with Nelson H. Barbour. In July 1879, Russell began leading a Bible study group and publishing the magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence,[22][23] highlighting his interpretations of biblical chronology, with particular attention to his belief that the world was in "the last days".[24] In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,[25] to disseminate tracts, papers, doctrinal treatises and Bibles; three years later, on December 15, 1884, Russell became the president of the Society when it was legally incorporated in Pennsylvania.[22]

Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible and Russell's writings. Russell firmly rejected as "wholly unnecessary" the concept of a formal organization for his followers, and declared that his group had no record of its members' names, no creeds, and no sectarian name.[26] The group became known as "Bible Students".[26] Russell died on October 31, 1916, and control of the Watch Tower magazine was temporarily passed to an Editorial Committee as outlined in Russell's will, with an Executive Committee in control of the Society.[27]

1916-1942: Joseph Rutherford

Organizational changes

In January 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford was elected the next president of the Watch Tower Society. A power struggle developed between Rutherford and the Society's Board of Directors, who objected to his style of leadership.[28][29] On July 17, 1917, Rutherford dismissed four of the directors, claiming they had not been legally elected.[30][31] He then announced the release of The Finished Mystery as the seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures; the book was described as "a posthumous publication ... of Charles Taze Russell", but was actually written by two other Bible Students.[32][33] Controversy erupted over Rutherford's actions, and many Bible Students left to form various splinter groups.[34] Eight years later, following a dispute over a proposed article, Rutherford dismissed the Watch Tower's Editorial Committee, giving him full control of the organization and material published in the magazine.[29]

The Finished Mystery strongly criticised Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.[35] Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violation of the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. In March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison;[36] the charges were later dropped.[37][38][39][40] Patriotic fervor during World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students in both America and Europe,[41] including mob violence and tarring and feathering.[28]

Rutherford continued to tighten and centralize organizational control of the Bible Students, with the Brooklyn headquarters appointing a "director" in each congregation in 1919, and a year later requiring all congregation members who participated in the preaching work to report their preaching activity weekly.[26] On July 26, 1931, the name Jehovah's witnesses was adopted by resolution at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, based on the American Standard Version's rendering of Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah". In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of selecting elders by congregational vote. In 1938, he introduced a "theocratic" or "God-ruled" organizational system, under which, all appointments in congregations worldwide are made from the Brooklyn headquarters.[26]

Doctrinal changes

At an international convention held at Cedar Point, in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching.[42] Significant changes in doctrine were made under Rutherford's leadership, including the 1918 announcement that Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year reign, accompanied by an earthly paradise.[43][44] The failed expectations for 1925, coupled with other doctrinal changes, resulted in a dramatic reduction in attendance at their yearly Memorial, from 90,434 in 1925[45] to 17,380 in 1928.[46][47] By 1933, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousía), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days", were each moved to 1914.[43][48][49][50][51] From 1935, converts to the movement were generally identified as those who, if worthy, would survive Armageddon and live on a paradise earth. Membership before this time was generally composed of those who believed they would be resurrected to live in heaven to rule over the earth with Christ.[52]

As their interpretations of Scripture continued to develop, Witnesses were told that saluting the flag or standing for the national anthem are forms of idolatry. They were also told to refuse alternative service provided for conscientious objectors. (Objection to alternative civilian service was maintained until 1996, when it was deemed a 'conscience matter'.[53][54]) In Germany, Jehovah's Witnesses came under persecution, with as many as 5000 imprisoned in concentration camps.[55][56] Witnesses also experienced mob violence in the US and were banned in Canada and Australia because of their refusal to accept military service.[57][58][59][60]

See also: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses
See also: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany

1942-present: Knorr, Franz, Henschel & Adams

Nathan Knorr was named the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society following Rutherford's death in January 1942. Knorr instituted major new training programs – the Theocratic Ministry School for all congregation members, and the Gilead School for missionaries. He also organized large-scale conventions, which attraced as many as 253,000 Witnesses to sports stadiums in the US, Canada and Germany,[61] and began a campaign of real estate acquisition in Brooklyn to expand the organisation's world headquarters. He commissioned a new translation of the Bible, which was released progressively from 1950 before being published as the complete New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in 1961. Knorr's vice-president, Frederick William Franz, became the religion's leading theologian,[62] and helped shape the further development of explicit rules of conduct among members, with a greater emphasis on disfellowshipping as a disciplinary measure.[63]

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house.

From 1938 to 1955 the Witnesses launched a series of cases in the US Supreme Court to defend their right to worship and proselytize, winning 36 out of 45 cases.[64]

See main article: Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses

From 1966, Witness publications began using their interpretations of biblical chronology to heighten anticipation of Christ's thousand-year millennial reign beginning in late 1975.[65][66][67] Focus on 1975 was intensified with talks given at conventions;[68] in 1974 a Watch Tower Society publication commended Witnesses who had sold homes and property to devote themselves to preaching in the "short time" remaining.[69] The number of baptisms soared, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974, but membership declined after expectations for the year were proved wrong.[70][71][72][73] In 1980, the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding 1975.[74]

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.[75] In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the religion's Governing Body.[76] Reflecting these organizational changes, publications of Jehovah's Witnesses began using the capitalized name, Jehovah's Witnesses.[77] Prior to this, witnesses was consistently uncapitalized, except in headings and when quoting external sources. Presidents since Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick Franz (1977-1992), Milton Henschel (1992-2000) and Don A. Adams (2000-).

Organization

See main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement, which their leadership calls a "theocratic government", reflecting their belief that it is God's organization on earth.[78]

The organization is headed by the Governing Body, based in the Watch Tower Society's Brooklyn, New York headquarters – an all-male group that varies in size, but since 2005 has comprised nine members, all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life.[79][80] There is no election for membership, with new members selected by the existing body.[81] The Governing Body is described as the "spokesman" for God's "Faithful and Discreet Slave class" (the approximately 10,000 remaining "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses),[82] and is said to provide "spiritual food" for Witnesses worldwide on behalf of the "Faithful and Discreet Slave". In practice it seeks neither advice nor approval from any "anointed" Witnesses other than high-ranking members at Brooklyn Bethel when formulating policy and doctrines or when producing material for publications and conventions.[83]

The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for various administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programmes and evangelizing activity.[78] It directly appoints all branch committee members and District and Circuit Overseers,[84] with traveling overseers supervising groups of congregations within their jurisdictions.

Witnesses have no formal clergy-laity division. Congregations are served by a body of appointed male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases that are seen as breaching scriptural or organizational laws. Elders are appointed by the Society after recommendation from the local body of elders. Ministerial servants – appointed in a similar fashion to elders – fulfil clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.[78]

Beliefs

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

Doctrinal positions on the Bible are gained by what Witness publications describe as "progressive revelation".[85] The term is not explicitly defined in Watch Tower literature,[86] but commonly taken to mean the application of reason and study as well as the undefined guidance of the Holy Spirit. The Watchtower has also suggested the organization has received direct, latter-day revelations. Rutherford spoke of spiritual "lightning flashes in the temple", and the Society claims its doctrine of the "great crowd" and "other sheep" were "revealed" to Rutherford in 1935. Witness literature has also described sudden changes in doctrines as "flashes of light" given by God through his holy spirit.[87][88][89] A 1930 publication claimed God used "invisible deputies" and "invisible angels" to pass his "messages" to the Watchtower.[90][91]

Jehovah

Also pronounced YAHWEH, the name "Jehovah" is a hybrid rendering of the Biblical Hebrew letters "yod-hey-vav-hey" (YHWH), the Tetragrammaton combined with the vowel sounds of adonai.

Emphasis is given to the use of God's Biblical name, the Tetragrammaton, and in English they prefer to use the name, Jehovah.[92] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the Creator of all things, and give him the title "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him.[93] Jehovah's Witnesses see humanity as participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.[94]

Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was Jehovah's first creation,[95] that Jehovah then created everything else by means of him, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's 'only-begotten Son'.[96][97] While on Earth as a human, Jesus performed miracles, but he does not perform them now.[98] Jesus served as a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity.[99] They believe that Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross.[100] They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Apollyon and Abaddon, and the Word all refer to Jesus.[101][102][103]

Satan

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan is the invisible ruler of the world.[93][104] He was at one time a perfect son of God but developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship that belonged to God. Satan persuaded Adam and Eve to obey him rather than God, raising the issue of who can rightfully claim to be sovereign of the universe.[93] Satan misleads people on Earth, and he and the demons are the reason for pain and suffering. In October 1914, Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven and the end times began.[93][105]

Salvation

Publications of Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that only Jehovah and Jesus determine who will survive Armageddon, but that only those serving Jehovah have any "Scriptural hope" of survival.[106] Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by Adam and created the possibility of everlasting life for humans. 144,000 anointed Christians will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ over the rest of humanity during the Millennial Reign. God's kingdom was established in heaven with Jesus Christ as king in 1914.[107] During the war of Armageddon the wicked will be destroyed.[108] The survivors and those who will be resurrected will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government.[109]

The majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live in a renewed paradise on Earth.[110] They believe that after Armageddon, most humans who have died will be resurrected, and will be granted a period of one thousand years to demonstrate their obedience to God.[111][112] People who were executed by God's judgement, such as during the Flood,[113] at Sodom and Gomorrah,[114] or at Armageddon, will not be resurrected.

Mortality

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment. Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed common grave.[115][116][117] They consider the soul and body to be the living being that expires.[118] Their hope for life after death involves being resurrected by God, either with a new body on earth after Armageddon, or to heaven for the limited number of 144,000.

Authority of the Bible

The entire Protestant canon of scripture is seen as the inspired, inerrant word of God.[119] The Witnesses accept the Bible as scientifically and historically accurate and reliable[120] and interpret much of the Bible literally, while also accepting it is rich in symbolism.[121] Jehovah's Witnesses reject the term "fundamentalist" as a description of the religion's beliefs.[122][123][124] They claim to use the Bible as the basis for all of their beliefs,[125] although studies of the religion show that the traditional teachings of Russell, as well as the pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower publications, carry as much or more weight than the Bible.[126][127] The leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses claims to be the sole visible channel of Jehovah and asserts that the Bible cannot be understood without its assistance.[128]

Cross

Jehovah's Witnesses reject the idea that Jesus died on a cross, and instead teach that he died on a single wooden stake, asserting that the Koiné Greek word σταυρος (pronounced [stau.ˈɾɔs]) refers to a single upright post. They view the cross to be of pagan origins and an object of idol worship.[129] Some Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted or killed for not bowing down to or kissing a cross.[130][131]

Practices

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

Proselytization

Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people from house to house.[132][133] Free home Bible studies are offered to people who show interest in their beliefs, which they present with the aid of their publications, such as The Watchtower. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with a small selection available in over 440 languages. They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Biblical principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future.[134][135][136] Witnesses are instructed to devote as much time as possible to preaching activities, and are required to provide a monthly report to their congregation on their 'witnessing' activity.[137]

Ethics and morality

Jehovah's Witnesses meet in buildings called Kingdom Halls, like this one in Germany.

Their view of morality reflects conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion (disfellowshipping) if the accused is not deemed repentant.[138] Abortion is considered murder.[139]

Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling,[140] drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.[141] Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.[142]

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous.[143] Divorce is permissible only for adultery.[144] If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adultery (if the previous spouse is still alive).[145] Abuse and willful non-support of one's family are considered grounds for separation.[146]

Disfellowshipping

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline

Jehovah's Witnesses employ a form of excommunication, which they have uniquely termed "disfellowshipping", where a member is considered unrepentant of committing a "serious sin". Members are not allowed to speak to individuals who are disfellowshipped, with the exception of parents of disfellowshipped minors still living in the family home. The stated purpose of disfellowshipping is to keep the congregation free from immoral influence and to shame wrong-doers into repentance,[147] but the threat of shunning also serves to deter other members from dissident behavior.[148][149]

Avoidance of interfaith activity

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions on the basis that there can only be one truth from God.[150][151] They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity, and that all other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will be destroyed.[152] They are opposed to 'councils' that unite or combine different religions.[153]

Celebrations

Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are observed, however holidays such as Easter, Halloween, Valentine's Day, Mother's Day, and Christmas are not celebrated, as Jehovah's Witnesses believe these customs come from ancient pagan religions.[154] Observances such as Independence Day and other national holidays are not observed by Jehovah's Witnesses because they believe these could compromise their neutrality.[155] Birthday parties and celebrations are also avoided as days that lead to feelings of "self-importance",[156] and are proscribed based on their interpretation of Genesis 40:20-22 and Mark 6:21-27. According to Watch Tower publications, birthdays are pagan in origin and were not celebrated by early Christians.[157]

Relationship with governments

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and governments

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government in heaven. They refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs,[158] as they believe that these acts are contrary to biblical principles. The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service – even when it is compulsory – and by their detachment from secular politics. However, they believe that they owe secular authorities their obedience. Members are expected to obey all laws of their native governments, so long as these do not violate their interpretations of scripture.[159][160] They are instructed to pay all taxes levied by the country in which they reside, considering the government to be solely responsible for how they are used.[161][162]

Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions
Jehovah's Witnesses most often reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood

Jehovah's Witnesses are opposed to blood transfusions, based on their understanding of how the Bible says blood should be treated.[163] In 1961, accepting a blood transfusion became grounds for expulsion from the religion.[164] They do not accept the threat of death as sufficient to dissuade them from rejecting blood transfusions for themselves or their children.[165] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible prohibits blood transfusions based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28-29.

Jehovah's Witnesses are not permitted to accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, though they may accept fractions made from these components at their own discretion.[166][167] The Watch Tower Society provides members with Power of Attorney documents to indicate which optional fractions they accept, with preformatted wording prohibiting major components.[168][169] If a fraction "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component", it may be objectionable to some but is permissible.[170]

Aid work

The Witnesses engage in aid work after large natural disasters, though this is secondary to their preaching effort. They claim they use large sums of donated money in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on rebuilding Kingdom Halls and helping fellow members, but they also claim to provide assistance to non-members in need near the area in which they are working.[171][172] Relief work has included that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, to Congo refugees,[173] and after Hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.[174]

The Memorial

Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death on behalf of humanity, referred to as the Memorial or the Lord's Evening Meal. It is held after sundown on the day corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover (Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar). This is usually in March or April on the first full moon after the spring equinox.[175] The event is open to anyone, and invitations are given out in communities about a month before. Over 17 million people attended the Memorial worldwide in 2007.

During the event, unleavened bread and wine, emblems symbolizing Jesus' perfect body and shed blood, are passed to each person in attendance. Only those members who profess to be of the anointed 144,000 partake of the emblems. They believe that those who partake unworthily of the emblems will be judged by Jehovah.

Demographics

Average Publishers, 1945–2005
Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 7.2 million members actively involved in preaching. In 2007, these reports indicated a total of over 1.3 billion hours. Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.2 million,[176] though there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2%–3% per annum since 1999.[177] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity, and do not include 'inactive' and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports. In the United States, about one-third of children among Jehovah’s Witnesses still identify themselves with the religion as adults.[178]

Main publications used

Main article: List of Jehovah's Witnesses publications

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, engages in extensive publishing work, with the production of books, brochures, and other media. The most widespread are:

  • New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, (1961, revised 1984) a translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 72 languages.
  • The Watchtower, a 32-page magazine, published since 1879, for use in the public ministry; published twice per month, on the 1st and a 15th of each month. From 2008 onward, the issue published on the 15th of each month is a Study Edition for use at the Watchtower Study and not used in the public ministry. It is available in 171 languages.
  • Awake!, a 32-page general interest magazine, with a wider scope than the Watchtower, usually including articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). Until 2005, Awake! was published on the 8th and 22nd of each month; from 2006 onwards, one issue is published each month. It is available in 81 languages.
  • What Does the Bible Really Teach?, (2005) the textbook used to conduct Bible studies.[179] It is available in 176 languages.

Criticism and controversies

Main article: Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted controversy over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, their handling of sexual abuse cases and what is claimed to be coercion of members.

Biblical controversies

The Watch Tower Society's New World Translation of the Bible has attracted criticism over the credentials of its translators,[180] its insertion of the name "Jehovah" 237 times in the New Testament without evidence that the name existed in the original Greek manuscripts,[181] and the translation of certain texts which may be biased towards specific Witness practices and doctrines.[182]

Doctrinal controversies

The Watch Tower Society has been accused of making false predictions[183] and issuing self-aggrandizing statements.[184][185] Watch Tower publications since the 1870s have issued numerous predictions based on Biblical chronology, many of them surrounding the dates 1914, 1925 and 1975. None of these predictions has been fulfilled.[186] It has also been accused of making false claims to act as a prophet in making predictions about the future.[187][188] Its publications have made the explicit claim that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet[189][190] and urged members of the religion to place unwavering trust in those predictions,[191] but has condemned others for making false predictions about the future.[192]

The Watch Tower Society claims that Jehovah's Witnesses alone practise true Christianity[193] and that the religion's Governing Body is the sole "channel" of communication between God and man.[194][195] It has claimed God used "invisible deputies" and "invisible angels" to pass his "messages" to the Watchtower.[196][197] The Watch Tower Society has claimed the Bible cannot be properly understood "without Jehovah's visible organization in mind"[198] and warned that individual interpretation of the Bible is dangerous and foolish.[199]

The Watch Tower Society has substantially altered doctrines since its inception and abandoned core teachings, many involving Bible chronology, it had earlier claimed as beyond question.[200][201][202][203]

Social controversies

Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz claims the religion's emphasis on its "theocratic" organization is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses[204] and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question statements by the Watch Tower Society.[26] Watch Tower literature warns against the "dangers" and "infection" of "independent thinking", such as questioning the counsel it provides.[205] Franz claims that the Watch Tower Society's firm discouragement of members to read criticism of the organization[206][207] or scriptural material published by other religions[208][209] creates a form of mental isolation that has been cited as an element of mind control.[210] Constant urging to devote increasing amounts of time to door-to-door preaching has been described as coercive pressure.[211] Medical and legal commentators have also noted cases of Witness medical patients being coerced to obey the religion's ban on blood transfusions.[17][18]

Sexual abuse

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and child sex abuse

Critics such as Silentlambs have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of employing organizational policies that make the reporting of sexual abuse difficult for members and some victims of sexual abuse have asserted that when reporting abuse they were ordered to maintain silence to avoid embarrassment to both the accused and the organization.[212][213]

In 2008 Barbara Anderson, a former member of the Watch Tower writing department,[214] published Secrets of Pedophilia in an American Religion - Jehovah's Witnesses in Crisis,[215][216] which contains a commentary and 5000 pages of court documents from 12 court record depositories in four US states. These court documents are the result of 12 lawsuits that Jehovah’s Witnesses were involved with since 1999, although many more lawsuits were settled out of court in the past decades.

References

  1. ^ Stark et al (1997). "Why Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application". Journal of Contemporary Religion 12 (2): 133-157. 
  2. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. "Jehovah's Witness: a member of a fundamentalist millenary sect"  (Emphasis added)
  3. ^ "Jehovah’s Witness at a glance". BBC - Religion & Ethics. BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/witnesses/ataglance/glance.shtml. Retrieved on 29 December 2008. 
  4. ^ "Religious affiliation and psychiatric diagnosis: The influence of Christian sect membership on diagnosis distribution". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience (Steinkopff) 243 (1). July 1993. doi:10.1007/BF02191523. ISSN 1433-8491. http://www.springerlink.com/content/p70t402339861562/. 
  5. ^ Elliott, Joel. Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Hartford Institute for Religion Research, Harftord Seminary. http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/Jehovah%27s.htm. 
  6. ^ Lawson, Ronald (1995). "Sect-State Relations: Accounting for the Differing Trajectories of Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociology of Religion 56. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=LQDJ9VKHbYhT2RqCynXwpRv1WVGnpy6398Jg9LfGSg7knyNcDGhh!23083005?a=o&d=97803201. 
  7. ^ a b Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 60–75. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  8. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 190. "Rutherford wanted to unify the preaching work and, instead of having each individual give his own opinion ... gradually Rutherford himself began to be the main spokesman for the organization."  (Franz quoting Faith on the March, 1957, A. H. MacMillan)
  9. ^ "Membership and Publishing Statistics". Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses. http://www.jw-media.org/people/statistics.htm. 
  10. ^ Evans, Allan S.; Riley E. Moynes, Larry Martinello (1973). What man Believes: A study of the World’s Great Faiths. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 424. ISBN 0-07-077440-4. 
  11. ^ "Armenia violates Jehovah's Witnesses' rights-Amnesty". Reuters. 16 January 2008. http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL15452518. 
  12. ^ "UNHCR report". 28 May 2008. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,AMNESTY,,ERI,,483e27893c,0.html. 
  13. ^ "Tajikistan: Jehovah's Witnesses Banned". F18News. 18 October 2007. http://www.forum18.org/Archive.php?article_id=1036. 
  14. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 7. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC. 
  15. ^ Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 1. 
  16. ^ House, H. Wayne (1992). Charts of Cults, Sects, and Religious Movements. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0310385516. 
  17. ^ a b "Jehovah's Witnesses case heads to B.C. court". Vancouver Sun. 1 April 1, 2007. http://www.rickross.com/reference/jw/jw289.html. 
  18. ^ a b J Guicho and, I Mitchell (December 2006). "Medical emergencies in children of orthodox Jehovah's Witness families: Three recent legal cases, ethical issues and proposals for management". Paediatrics & Child Health, Canadian Pediatric Society. http://www.pulsus.com/journals/abstract.jsp?HCtype=Consumer&sCurrPg=journal&jnlKy=5&atlKy=6964&isuKy=460&spage=1&isArt=t&. 
  19. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. pp. 10. ISBN 0415266092. 
  20. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Atlanta: Commentary Press. p. 754. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  21. ^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  22. ^ a b Holden, A. (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. p. 18. 
  23. ^ The Watch Tower from 1879–1916 available online by issue and by article from the seven-volume Watch Tower Reprints, published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920
  24. ^ "Prospectus". Zion's Watch Tower. 1 July 1879. http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/Z1879JUL.asp#R3:9. 
  25. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. p. 576. 
  26. ^ a b c d e Franz, Raymond (2007). "Chapter 4". In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. 
  27. ^ "A Time of Testing (1914-1918)". Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. p. 64. 
  28. ^ a b Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802079733. 
  29. ^ a b Franz, Raymond (2002). "Chapter 3". Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. 
  30. ^ Penton, M. J.. Apocalypse Delayed. p. 52. "If the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society's three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford's own logic, did not hold office legally." 
  31. ^ A.H. MacMillan (PDF). Faith on the March. p. 80. http://www.quotedstatements.com/FOTM.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-25. 
  32. ^ The Finished Mystery at Google Book Search
  33. ^ The Finished MysteryPDF (19.0 MB)
  34. ^ Chryssides, George D. (April 19, 2001). Unrecognized charisma? A study of four charismatic leaders. http://www.cesnur.org/2001/london2001/chryssides.htm. 
  35. ^ "The Revelation". The Finished Mystery. pp. 247-253. http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/finishedmystery/fmr16.html. 
  36. ^ Rutherford et al. vs. the United States, . See also "Application for Executive Clemency". 1919. http://www.pastor-russell.com/misc/jfrdoc.html. , "Reversal by Appeals Court" (PDF). http://www.watchtowerdocuments.com/downloads/1919_May_14__Appeals_Court_reverses_conviction_of_WT_Directo.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-30. 
  37. ^ M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. pp. 55–56. 
  38. ^ Apocalypse Delayed at Google Book Search
  39. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 647–654. 
  40. ^ Rutherford gives his defense against the charges in the tract The Case of the IBSA
  41. ^ "Distress of Nations: Cause, Warning, Remedy" (PDF). The Golden Age: 712–718. September 29 1920. http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1920_Golden_Age.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-30. 
  42. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 72–77. 
  43. ^ a b Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. p. 144. 
  44. ^ Gross, Edmond C. (2001). "Chapter 24". Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?. Xulon Press. ISBN 193123230X. 
  45. ^ Your Will Be Done on Earth. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1958. p. 337. 
  46. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1959. p. 313. 
  47. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 61-62. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. 
  48. ^ The Harp of God. 1921. pp. 231–236.  states that "the Lord's second presence dates from 1874."
  49. ^ The Harp of God at Google Book Search
  50. ^ Watchtower. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. March 1 1922. p. 71.  and Prophecy. 1930. pp. 65–66.  supported 1874.
  51. ^ Thomas Daniels (PDF). Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses. pp. 3–37. http://www.catholic-forum.com/members/popestleo/Historical%20Idealism%20and%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-02-01. 
  52. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 84–85. 
  53. ^ "Paying Back Caesar’s Things to Caesar". The Watchtower: 19. 1 May 1996. 
  54. ^ "Strengthening Our Confidence in God’s Righteousness". The Watchtower. 15 August 1998. 
  55. ^ "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005394. Retrieved on February 22, 2005. 
  56. ^ Hesse, Hans (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime. p. 10. http://books.google.com/books?visbn=3861087502&id=mcxD0qxHMO0C&printsec=frontcover. 
  57. ^ American Civil Liberties Union (1941) (PDF). The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses. pp. 1–24. http://www.theocraticlibrary.com/downloads/The_Persecution_of_Jehovah's_Witnesses_-_ACLU.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-30. 
  58. ^ Harrison, Barbara (1978). Visions of Glory. pp. 185, 281. http://www.exjws.net/vg.htm. 
  59. ^ Persian, Jayne (December 2005). "The Banning of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia in 1941" (PDF). http://www.tasa.org.au/conferencepapers05/papers%20(pdf)/religion_persian.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-30. 
  60. ^ Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. v. The Commonwealth of Australia, 67 116, 124 . (PDF, 68MB)
  61. ^ Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 86. 
  62. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. p. 72. 
  63. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). "Chapter 8". In Search of Christain Freedom. Commentary Press. 
  64. ^ Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 89. 
  65. ^ Life Everlasting in Freedom of the Sons of God. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1966. pp. 29-35. http://www.strictlygenteel.co.uk/lifeeverlasting/1966_Life_Everlasting.pdf. 
  66. ^ "How Much Longer Will It Be?". Awake!: 17–20. October 8 1966. 
  67. ^ Awake!. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. October 8, 1968. p. 14. "Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say...If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us.". 
  68. ^ Franz, Raymond. "Chapter 9". Crisis of Conscience. 
  69. ^ Our Kingdom Ministry. May 1974. 
  70. ^ Franz, Raymond. "1975—The Appropriate Time for God to Act" (PDF). Crisis of Conscience. pp. 237–253. http://web.archive.org/web/20031209184316/http://users.volja.net/izobcenec4/coc/9.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-07-27. 
  71. ^ Singelenberg, Richard (1989). "The '1975'-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Analysis (1): 23–40. http://www.watchtowerinformationservice.org/index.php/dates/the-1975-prophecy-and-its-impact-among-dutch-jehovahs-witnesses/.  Notes a nine percent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands.
  72. ^ Stark and Iannoccone (1997) (PDF). The Journal of Contemporary Religion. pp. 142–143. http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-30. 
  73. ^ Dart, John (January 30, 1982). "Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth". Los Angeles Times: p. B4.  Cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971–1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.
  74. ^ The Watchtower. March 15, 1980. p. 17. "With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God, ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... persons having to do with the publication of the information ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date.". 
  75. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. p. 106. 
  76. ^ 1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 258. 
  77. ^ First occurrence: "Cruelties Go Unchecked in Malawi". Awake!: 3. 22 March 1976. 
  78. ^ a b c Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 211–252. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. 
  79. ^ Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. pp. 4, 6. 
  80. ^ Botting, Heather & Gary (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  81. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  82. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 153. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  83. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 154–164. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  84. ^ The Watchtower, January 15, 2001, pages 14-15|"The Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses directly appoints all members of Branch Committees. [...] In addition to appointing Branch Committee members, the Governing Body appoints Bethel elders and traveling overseers. However, they do commission responsible brothers to act for them in making certain other appointments."
  85. ^ Watchtower, March 15, 1994 p. 12.
  86. ^ Penton, M. J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 165-171. 
  87. ^ Penton, M. J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 165. 
  88. ^ "“The Things Revealed Belong to Us”". The Watchtower: 10-15. May 15, 1986. 
  89. ^ "Flashes of Light - Great and Small". The Watchtower: 17,18. May 15, 1995. 
  90. ^ "Light 1, page 64". 1930. http://www.towerwatch.com/Witnesses/society/AboutTheSociety/1930_Light1_64.tif. 
  91. ^ "Light 1, page 106". http://www.towerwatch.com/Witnesses/society/AboutTheSociety/1930_Light1_106.tif. 
  92. ^ Holden, A. (2002) (PDF). Cavorting With the Devil: Jehovah’s Witnesses Who Abandon Their Faith. Department of Sociology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK. p. Endnote [i]. http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/sociology/papers/holden-cavorting-with-the-devil.pdf. 
  93. ^ a b c d Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. 1993. pp. 144-145. 
  94. ^ "The Bible Answers Vital Questions of Our Day". The Watchtower. November 15, 1999. 
  95. ^ Insight on the Scriptures. 2. 1988. p. 1019. 
  96. ^ "Jesus Christ—God’s Beloved Son". The Watchtower: 13. June 1, 1988. 
  97. ^ "Only-begotten". Insight on the Scriptures. 2. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1988. pp. 556-557. 
  98. ^ Holden, A (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: portrait of a contemporary movement. Routledge. p. 180. 
  99. ^ ""His Vital Place in God's Purpose" and "Chief Agent of life"". Insight on the Scriptures. 2. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. pp. 60–61. 
  100. ^ Reasoning From the Scriptures. 1989. pp. 89–90. 
  101. ^ "Angels: How They Affect Us". The Watchtower (Jehovah's Witnesses). 15 January 2006. 
  102. ^ Insight on the Scriptures. 2. 1988. pp. 393–394. 
  103. ^ Insight on the Scriptures. 1. 1988. pp. 12, 126. 
  104. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. p. 32. 
  105. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. pp. 87,216. 
  106. ^ "Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium". Watchtower: 19. September 1 1989. "Only Jehovah's Witnesses, those of the anointed remnant and the "great crowd", as a united organization under the protection of the Supreme Organizer, have Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end of this doomed system now dominated by Satan the Devil. When will that day of judgment come? The bible states in several scriptures that only God himself knows when he will execute his judgment.". 
  107. ^ "Will Cruelty Ever End?". The Watchtower: 5. 1 April 2007. 
  108. ^ The Watchtower. 1 September 1945. 
  109. ^ "Question From Readers". The Watchtower: 31. 1 October 1983. 
  110. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. pp. 33–36. 
  111. ^ ""Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing"". Watchtower: 19–24. July 1998. 
  112. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 214. 
  113. ^ Revelation–Its Grand Climax at Hand. p. 297. 
  114. ^ "Question from Readers". The Watchtower: 31. 1 June 1988. 
  115. ^ "Is There LIFE After Death?". The Watchtower. July 15 2005. http://www.watchtower.org/e/20020715/article_02.htm. Retrieved on 2008-09-14. 
  116. ^ "Hell—Eternal Torture or Common Grave?". The Watchtower: 6. April 15 1993. 
  117. ^ Insight on the Scriptures. 2. 1988. p. 189. 
  118. ^ Insight on the Scriptures. 2. 1988. p. 1004. "The...Scriptures show 'soul' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys." 
  119. ^ Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 172. 
  120. ^ All Scripture is Inspired of God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1990, page 336.
  121. ^ All Scripture is Inspired of God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1990, page 9.
  122. ^ "How Are Jehovah's Witnesses Different?". The Watchtower (Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society): 629. 15 October 1974. 
  123. ^ "Obedience to the Good News a Way of Life". The Watchtower (Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society): 618. 15 October 1977. 
  124. ^ "Science, Religion, and the Search for Truth". The Watchtower (Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society): 6. 1 September 1994. 
  125. ^ Reasoning From The Scriptures | p. 199 - p. 208 Jehovah’s Witnesses
  126. ^ Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 159-163. 
  127. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. pp. 67. ISBN 0415266092. 
  128. ^ The Watchtower (Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society): 587,590. 1 October 1967. 
  129. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. pp. 51,201-204. 
  130. ^ "European High Court Upholds Right to Preach in Greece". The Watchtower (Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society): 28-29. 1 September 1993. 
  131. ^ "Poland". 1994 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. p. 206. 
  132. ^ "House-to-House Preaching —An Identifying Mark". Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. 1993. p. 570. 
  133. ^ "Showing Lifesaving Neighbor Love". The Watchtower: 17. May 15, 1981. 
  134. ^ "Social Ministry—How It Affects People". The Watchtower: 6. January 15, 1987. 
  135. ^ "How the True Church Helps". The Watchtower: 426. July 15, 1971. 
  136. ^ "Is There More than One Way of Being a Christian". The Watchtower: 647. November 1, 1966. 
  137. ^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-8029-2537-4. 
  138. ^ Chryssides, G.D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103. 
  139. ^ "Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness". Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1995. p. 118. 
  140. ^ Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1995. p. 120. 
  141. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 280. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. 
  142. ^ "Maintain a Balanced View of the Use of Alcohol". 'The Watchtower': 18. 1 December 2004. 
  143. ^ "The Bible's Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?". Awake!: 26. July 8, 2004. 
  144. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 112. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. 
  145. ^ "Adultery". Insight on the Scriptures. p. 53. 
  146. ^ "When Marital Peace Is Threatened". The Watchtower: 22. 1 November 1988. 
  147. ^ "Appendix: How to Treat a Disfellowshipped person". Keep Yourselves in God's Love. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2008. pp. 198-202. 
  148. ^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses - Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. pp. 163. ISBN 0-414-26610-6. 
  149. ^ "Make Wise Use of Your Christian Freedom", Watchtower, June 1, 1992, page 18.
  150. ^ "Is Interfaith God's Way?". The Watchtower: 69. 1 February 1952. 
  151. ^ "Religion’s Future in View of Its Past Part 22—1900 onward—False Religion—Overtaken by Its Past!". Awake!: 22. 22 November 1989. 
  152. ^ "15 Worship That God Approves". What Does The Bible Really Teach?. p. 145. 
  153. ^ "Should the Religions Unite?". The Watchtower: 741-742. 15 December 1953. 
  154. ^ "Beliefs and Customs That Displease God". What Does God Require of Us?. Jehovah's Witnesses. http://www.watchtower.org/e/rq/article_11.htm. 
  155. ^ "Holidays and Celebrations". School p.21. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1983. 
  156. ^ "Holidays and Celebrations". School. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1983. 
  157. ^ What Does God Require of Us? p. 22
  158. ^ ""Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"". Watchtower: 21. September 15 2002. 
  159. ^ "Who Are God’s Ministers Today?". The Watchtower: 15. 15 November 2000. 
  160. ^ "“From a Weak State ... Made Powerful”". The Watchtower: 115. 15 February 1967. 
  161. ^ "Our Relative Subjection to the Superior Authorities". Watchtower: 24. 1 November 1990. 
  162. ^ "God and Caesar". Watchtower: 9. May 1 1996. 
  163. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. p. i. 
  164. ^ Muramoto, O. (January 6, 2001). "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses". BMJ 322: 37–39. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37. PMID 11141155. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1119307. 
  165. ^ Bowman, R. M.; Beisner, E. C. , Ehrenborg, T. (1995). Jehovah's Witnesses. Zondervan. p. 13. 
  166. ^ "Questions From Readers–Do Jehovah’s Witnesses accept any medical products derived from blood?". The Watchtower: 30. June 15, 2000. 
  167. ^ Sniesinski et al (April 2007). "Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa" (PDF). Anesthesia & Analgesia 104: 763. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3. http://www.freeminds.org/doctrine/sniecinski_analgesia2.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-12-30. 
  168. ^ Durable Power of Attorney form. Watch Tower Society. January 2001. p. 1.  Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: Cell Salvage, Hemodilution, Heart-Lung Machine, Dialysis, Epidural Blood Patch, Plasmapheresis, Labeling or Tagging of Blood and Platelet Gel (Autologous)
  169. ^ Our Kingdom Ministry. November 2006. pp. 5-6. http://www.aggelia.be/km_nov2006.pdf. 
  170. ^ "The Real Value of Blood". Awake!: 11. August 2006. 
  171. ^ "From Our Readers". Awake!: 30. 8 June 1989. 
  172. ^ "The Levee Has Broken!". Awake!: 21. October 8, 1986. 
  173. ^ "Christianity in Action, Watchtower, January 15, 1998.
  174. ^ "Heeding the Warnings Made a Difference". Awake!: 14-19. June 2006. 
  175. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watch Tower Society. 2005. p. 206. 
  176. ^ Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watch Tower Society. 1996–2008. 
  177. ^ Grundy, Paul. "Facts about truth and Jehovah's Witnesses". http://jwfacts.com/index_files/statistics.htm. 
  178. ^ U.S. Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic. Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. February 2008. pp. 9, 30. 
  179. ^ "The Bible Teach Book—Our Primary Bible Study Aid". Our Kingdom Ministry: 1. January 2006. 
  180. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. pp. 56. ISBN 0-914675-23-0. 
  181. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 494–505. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  182. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 174–176. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. 
  183. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 4. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. 
  184. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 107. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  185. ^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1997). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 70-75. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  186. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. pp. 204-236. ISBN 0-914675-23-0. 
  187. ^ Waldeck, Val Jehovah's Witnesses: What do they believe?. Pilgrim Publications SA. ISBN 1-920092-08-0.
  188. ^ Buttrey, John M (2004). Let No One Mislead You. iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-30710-8.
  189. ^ "They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them", Watchtower, April 1, 1972, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007.
  190. ^ The Watchtower, January 15, 1959, pp.39-41|"Whom has God actually used as his prophet? ... Jehovah's witnesses are deeply grateful today that the plain facts show that God has been pleased to use them. ... It has been because Jehovah thrust out his hand of power and touched their lips and put his words in their mouths..."
  191. ^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 174.
  192. ^ Awake!, October 8, 1968, p. 23.
  193. ^ The Watchtower, What Does God Require of Us?, January 15, 1997, p. 22|“There is only one religious organization on this earth that has all these marks of true Christianity—Jehovah’s Witnesses!”
  194. ^ "Jehovah and Christ—Foremost Communicators", Watchtower, September 1, 1991, pages 15-19.
  195. ^ "Christian Channel of Communication", Watchtower, May 15, 1955.
  196. ^ Light 1, 1930, page 64.
  197. ^ Light 1, 1930, page 106.
  198. ^ Watchtower, October 1, 1967, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 163.
  199. ^ Watchtower, February 1, 1952, pages 79, 80 as cited by Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 97.
  200. ^ Watch Tower, 1916, as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 46.
  201. ^ "The Corroborative Testimony of God's Stone Witness and Prophet, The Great Pyramid in Egypt", Chapter 10, Thy Kingdom Come, third volume of Studies in the Scriptures, 1910.
  202. ^ Thy Kingdom Come, 1891, page 23.
  203. ^ Watchtower, May 1, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 221.
  204. ^ R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 17.
  205. ^ "Exposing the Devil’s Subtle Designs" and "Armed for the Fight Against Wicked Spirits", Watchtower, January 15, 1983, as cited by Heather and Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1984, page 92.
  206. ^ "Do not be quickly shaken from your reason", Watchtower, March 15, 1986
  207. ^ "At which table are you feeding?" Watchtower, July 1, 1994
  208. ^ Watchtower, May 1, 1984, page 31, as cited by R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", chapter 12
  209. ^ "Firmly uphold godly teaching," Watchtower, May 1, 2000, page 9.
  210. ^ R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", chapter 12
  211. ^ R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 6.
  212. ^ "Another Church Sex Scandal" (April 29, 2003). CBS News.
  213. ^ Cutrer, Corrie (March 5, 2001). "Witness Leaders Accused of Shielding Molesters", Christianity Today.
  214. ^ The Discoveries of Barbara Anderson, accessed 8 March 2009
  215. ^ Secrets of Pedophilia in an American Religion CD, accessed 8 March 2009
  216. ^ "Secrets of Pedophilia in an American Religion - Jehovah's Witnesses in Crisis" (pdf). http://www.watchtowerdocuments.com/downloads/Secrets_Commentary_Version_2.pdf. 

Further reading

  • Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge and a former member of the religion, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
  • Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978–0415266109. 224 pages.
  • Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
  • A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978–1-4303–0100–4 Selections from Google Books

External links

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