Psychosis

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation).
Psychosis
Classification and external resources
ICD-9 290-299
OMIM 603342 608923 603175 192430
MedlinePlus 001553
MeSH F03.700.675

Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche", for mind or soul, and -οσις "-osis", for abnormal condition), with adjective psychotic, literally means abnormal condition of the mind, and is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often described as involving a "loss of contact with reality". People suffering from psychosis are said to be psychotic.

People experiencing psychosis may report hallucinations or delusional beliefs, and may exhibit personality changes and disorganized thinking. This may be accompanied by unusual or bizarre behavior, as well as difficulty with social interaction and impairment in carrying out the activities of daily living.

A wide variety of central nervous system diseases, from both external toxins, and from internal physiologic illness, can produce symptoms of psychosis. This disease link has led to the metaphor of psychosis as the 'fever' of CNS illness—a serious but nonspecific indicator.[1][2]

However, many people have unusual and distinct (unshared) experiences of different realities at some point in their lives, without being impaired or even distressed by these experiences. For example, many people in the general population have experienced visions of some kind.[3][4] As a result, it has been argued that psychosis is not fundamentally separate from normal consciousness, but rather, is on a continuum with normal consciousness.[5] In this view, people who are clinically found to be psychotic may simply be having particularly intense or distressing experiences (see schizotypy).

In contemporary culture, the term "psychotic" is often incorrectly used interchangeably with "psychopathic or sociopathic", which actually describe a propensity to engage in violently antisocial behaviors, not usually involving hallucinations or delusions.

Contents

[edit] Signs and symptoms

People with psychosis may have one or more of the following: hallucinations, delusions, or thought disorder, as described below.

[edit] Hallucinations

Hallucinations are defined as sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. They are different from illusions, or perceptual distortions, which are the misperception of external stimuli.[6] Hallucinations may occur in any of the five senses and take on almost any form, which may include simple sensations (such as lights, colors, tastes, and smells) to more meaningful experiences such as seeing and interacting with fully formed animals and people, hearing voices and complex tactile sensations.

Auditory hallucinations, particularly the experience of hearing voices, are a common and often prominent feature of psychosis. Hallucinated voices may talk about, or to the person, and may involve several speakers with distinct personas. Auditory hallucinations tend to be particularly distressing when they are derogatory, commanding or preoccupying. However, the experience of hearing voices need not always be a negative one. Research has shown that the majority of people who hear voices are not in need of psychiatric help.[7] The Hearing Voices Movement has subsequently been created to support voice hearers, regardless of whether they are considered to have a mental illness or not.

[edit] Delusions

Psychosis may involve delusional beliefs, some of which are paranoid in nature. Karl Jaspers has classified psychotic delusions into primary and secondary types. Primary delusions are defined as arising suddenly and not being comprehensible in terms of normal mental processes, whereas secondary delusions may be understood as being influenced by the person's background or current situation (e.g., ethnic or sexual orientation, religious beliefs, superstitious belief).[8]

[edit] Thought disorder

It describes an underlying disturbance to conscious thought and is classified largely by its effects on speech and writing. Affected persons show loosening of associations, that is, a disconnection and disorganisation of the semantic content of speech and writing. In the severe form speech becomes incomprehensible and it is known as "word-salad".

[edit] Classification

 The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (March 2009)

In medical practice today, a descriptive approach to psychosis (and to all mental illness) is used, based on behavioral and clinical observations. This approach is adopted in the standard guide to psychiatric diagnoses employed in the United States, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Since the DSM provides a widely-used standard of reference, the description presented here will largely reflect that point of view.

According to the DSM-IV-TR, the term psychosis has had many definitions in the past, both broad and narrow. The narrowest was delusions or hallucinations without insight. A middle ground may be delusions, hallucinations with or without insight, as well as disorganized behavior or speech. Thus, psychosis can be a symptom of mental illness, but it is not a mental illness in its own right. For example, people with schizophrenia often experience psychosis, but so can people with bipolar disorder (manic depression), unipolar depression, delirium or drug withdrawal.[9][1] People diagnosed with these conditions can also have long periods without psychosis, and some may never experience them again. Conversely, psychosis can occur in people who do not have chronic mental illness (e.g. due to an adverse drug reaction or extreme stress).[10]

Psychosis should be distinguished from:

  • insanity, which is a legal term denoting that a person is not criminally responsible for his or her actions.[11] "Insanity is no longer considered a medical diagnosis..." [12]
  • psychopathy, a general term for a range of personality disorders characterized by lack of empathy, socially manipulative behavior, and occasionally criminality or violence.[13] Despite both being abbreviated to the slang word "psycho", psychosis bears little similarity to the core features of psychopathy, particularly with regard to violence, which rarely occurs in psychosis,[14][15] and distorted perception of reality, which rarely occurs in psychopathy.[16]
  • delirium: a psychotic individual may be able to perform actions that require a high level of intellectual effort in clear consciousness, whereas a delirious individual will have impaired memory and cognitive function.

The DSM-IV-TR lists 9 formal psychotic disorders, but many other disorders may have psychotic symptoms. The formal psychotic disorders are:

  1. Schizophrenia
  2. Schizoaffective disorder
  3. Schizophreniform disorder
  4. Brief psychotic disorder
  5. Delusional disorder
  6. Shared psychotic disorder (Folie à deux)
  7. Substance-induced psychosis
  8. Psychosis due to a general medical condition
  9. Psychosis - Not otherwise specified

[edit] Clinical Scales

The BPRS (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale) [17] assesses the level of 18 symptom constructs of psychosis such as hostility, suspiciousness, hallucination, and grandiosity. It is based on the clinician's interview with the patient and observations of the patient's behavior over the previous 2-3 days. The patient's family can also provide the behavior report.

[edit] Causes

Causes of symptoms of mental illness were customarily classified as "organic" or "functional". Organic conditions are primarily medical or pathophysiological, whereas, functional conditions are primarily psychiatric or psychological. The DSM-IV-TR no longer classifies psychotic disorders as functional or organic. Rather it lists traditional psychotic illnesses, psychosis due to General Medical conditions, and Substance induced psychosis.

[edit] Psychiatric

Functional causes of psychosis include the following:

A psychotic episode can be significantly affected by mood. For example, people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of depression may experience persecutory or self-blaming delusions or hallucinations, while people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of mania may form grandiose delusions.

Stress is known to contribute to and trigger psychotic states. A history of psychologically traumatic events, and the recent experience of a stressful event, can both contribute to the development of psychosis. Short-lived psychosis triggered by stress is known as brief reactive psychosis, and patients may spontaneously recover normal functioning within two weeks.[10] In some rare cases, individuals may remain in a state of full-blown psychosis for many years, or perhaps have attenuated psychotic symptoms (such as low intensity hallucinations) present at most times.

Sleep deprivation has been linked to psychosis.[19][20][21] However, this is not a risk for most people, who merely experience hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations, i.e. unusual sensory experiences or thoughts that appear during waking or drifting off to sleep. These are normal sleep phenomena and are not considered signs of psychosis.[22]

Vitamin B12 deficiency can also cause symptoms of mania and psychosis.[23][24]

Vitamin D deficiency can cause altered thinking and psychosis.[25]

[edit] General medical

Psychosis arising from "organic" (non-psychological) conditions is sometimes known as secondary psychosis. It can be associated with the following pathologies:

Psychosis can even be caused by apparently innocuous ailments such as flu[59][60] or mumps.[61]

[edit] Psychoactive drug use

Intoxication with drugs that have general depressant effects on the central nervous system (especially alcohol and barbiturates) tend not to cause psychosis during use, and can actually decrease or lessen the impact of symptoms in some people. However, withdrawal from barbiturates and alcohol can be particularly dangerous, leading to psychosis or delirium and other, potentially lethal, withdrawal effects.

Some studies indicate that cannabis use may lower the threshold for psychosis, and thus help to trigger full-blown psychosis in some people.[62] Early studies have been criticized for failing to consider other drugs (such as LSD) that the participants may have used before or during the study, as well as other factors such as pre-existing ("comorbid") mental illness. However, more recent studies with better controls have still found a small increase in risk for psychosis in cannabis users.[63]

It is not clear whether this is a causal link, and it is possible that cannabis use only increases the chance of psychosis in people already predisposed to it; or that people with developing psychosis use cannabis to provide temporary relief of their mental discomfort. A fact is that cannabis use has increased over past few decades but declined in the last decade, whereas the rate of psychosis has not increased. This suggests that a direct causal link is unlikely for all users.[64] Alcohol is also a common risk of causing psychotic disorders or epsiodes. Research has shown than alcohol abuse causes an 8 fold increase in psychotic disorders in men and a 3 fold increased risk of psychotic disorders in women.[65][66] Alcoholic psychosis is sometimes misdiagnosed as a mental illness such as schizophrenia.[67]

It is also important to this topic to understand the paradoxical effects of some sedative drugs.[68].Serious complications can occur in conjunction with the use of sedatives creating the opposite effect as to that intended. Malcolm Lader at the Institute of Psychiatry in London estimates the incidence of these adverse reactions at about 5%, even in short-term use of the drugs.[69] The paradoxical reactions may consist of depression, with or without suicidal tendencies, phobias, aggressiveness, violent behavior and symptoms sometimes misdiagnosed as psychosis.[70][71] However, psychosis is more commonly related to the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome.[72]

Psychotic states may occur after ingesting a variety of substances both legal and illegal and both prescription and non-prescription. Drugs whose use, abuse or withdrawal are implicated include:

[edit] Prescription medication

Some medications such as bromocriptine and phenylpropanolamine may also cause or worsen psychotic symptoms.[103][104] [105]

[edit] Pathophysiology

Brain imaging studies of psychosis, investigating both changes in brain structure and changes in brain function of people undergoing psychotic episodes, have shown mixed results.

The first brain image of an individual with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called pneumoencephalography[106] (a painful and now obsolete procedure where cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture).

More recently, a 2003 study investigating structural changes in the brains of people with psychosis showed there was significant grey matter reduction in the cortex of people before and after they became psychotic.[107] Findings such as these have led to debate about whether psychosis is itself neurotoxic and whether potentially damaging changes to the brain are related to the length of psychotic episode. Recent research has suggested that this is not the case[108] although further investigation is still ongoing.

Functional brain scans have revealed that the areas of the brain that react to sensory perceptions are active during psychosis. For example, a PET or fMRI scan of a person who claims to be hearing voices may show activation in the auditory cortex, or parts of the brain involved in the perception and understanding of speech.[109]

On the other hand, there is not a clear enough psychological definition of belief to make a comparison between different people particularly valid. Brain imaging studies on delusions have typically relied on correlations of brain activation patterns with the presence of delusional beliefs.[110]

One clear finding is that persons with a tendency to have psychotic experiences seem to show increased activation in the right hemisphere of the brain.[111] This increased level of right hemisphere activation has also been found in healthy people who have high levels of paranormal beliefs[112] and in people who report mystical experiences.[113] It also seems to be the case that people who are more creative are also more likely to show a similar pattern of brain activation.[114] Some researchers have been quick to point out that this in no way suggests that paranormal, mystical or creative experiences are in any way by themselves a symptom of mental illness, as it is still not clear what makes some such experiences beneficial and others distressing. People who have profoundly different experiences of reality or hold unusual views or opinions have traditionally held a complex role in society, with some being ostracized and viewed as deviants, whilst others are lauded as prophets or visionaries.

Psychosis has been traditionally linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine. In particular, the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis has been influential and states that psychosis results from an overactivity of dopamine function in the brain, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway. The two major sources of evidence given to support this theory are that dopamine-blocking drugs (i.e. antipsychotics) tend to reduce the intensity of psychotic symptoms, and that drugs which boost dopamine activity (such as amphetamine and cocaine) can trigger psychosis in some people (see amphetamine psychosis).[115] However, increasing evidence in recent times has pointed to a possible dysfunction of the excitory neurotransmitter glutamate, in particular, with the activity of the NMDA receptor. This theory is reinforced by the fact that dissociative NMDA receptor antagonists such as ketamine, PCP and dextromethorphan/detrorphan (at large overdoses) induce a psychotic state more readily than dopinergic stimulants, even at "normal" recreational doses. The symptoms of dissociative intoxication are also considered to mirror the symptoms of schizophrenia more closely, including negative psychotic symptoms than amphetamine psychosis. Dissociative induced psychosis happens on a more reliable and predictable basis than amphetamine psychosis, which usually only occurs in cases of overdose, prolonged use or with sleep deprivation, which can independently produce psychosis. New antipsychotic drugs which act on glutamate and its receptors are currently undergoing clinical trials.

The connection between dopamine and psychosis is generally believed to be complex. While antipsychotic drugs immediately block dopamine receptors, they usually take a week or two to reduce the symptoms of psychosis. Moreover, newer and equally effective antipsychotic drugs actually block slightly less dopamine in the brain than older drugs whilst also affecting serotonin function, suggesting the 'dopamine hypothesis' may be oversimplified.[116] Soyka and colleagues found no evidence of dopaminergic dysfunction in people with alcohol-induced psychosis[117] and Zoldan et al. reported moderately successful use of ondansetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, in the treatment of levodopa psychosis in Parkinson's disease patients.[118]

Psychiatrist David Healy has criticised pharmaceutical companies for promoting simplified biological theories of mental illness that seem to imply the primacy of pharmaceutical treatments while ignoring social and developmental factors which are known to be important influences in the aetiology of psychosis.[119]

Some theories regard many psychotic symptoms to be a problem with the perception of ownership of internally generated thoughts and experiences.[120] For example, the experience of hearing voices may arise from internally generated speech that is mislabeled by the psychotic person as coming from an external source.

[edit] Treatment

The treatment of psychosis depends on the cause or diagnosis or diagnoses (such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and/ or substance intoxication). The first line treatment for many psychotic disorders is antipsychotic medication (oral or intramuscular injection), and sometimes hospitalisation is needed. There is growing evidence that cognitive behavior therapy[121] and family therapy[122] can be effective in managing psychotic symptoms. When other treatments for psychosis are ineffective, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (aka shock treatment) is sometimes utilized to relieve the underlying symptoms of psychosis due to depression. There is also increasing research suggesting that Animal-Assisted Therapy can contribute to the improvement in general well-being of people with schizophrenia.[123]

[edit] Early intervention

Main article: Early intervention in psychosis

Early intervention in psychosis is a relatively new concept based on the observation that identifying and treating someone in the early stages of a psychosis can significantly improve their longer term outcome.[124] This approach advocates the use of an intensive multi-disciplinary approach during what is known as the critical period, where intervention is the most effective, and prevents the long term morbidity associated with chronic psychotic illness.

Newer research into the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy during the early pre-cursory stages of psychosis (also known as the "prodrome" or "at risk mental state") suggests that such input can prevent or delay the onset of psychosis.[125]

[edit] History

The word psychosis was first used by Ernst von Feuchtersleben in 1845[126] as an alternative to insanity and mania and stems from the Greek ψύχωσις (psychosis), "a giving soul or life to, animating, quickening" and that from ψυχή (psyche), "soul" and the suffix -ωσις (-osis), in this case "abnormal condition".[127][128] The word was used to distinguish disorders which were thought to be disorders of the mind, as opposed to "neurosis", which was thought to stem from a disorder of the nervous system.

The division of the major psychoses into manic depressive illness (now called bipolar disorder) and dementia praecox (now called schizophrenia) was made by Emil Kraepelin, who attempted to create a synthesis of the various mental disorders identified by 19th century psychiatrists, by grouping diseases together based on classification of common symptoms. Kraepelin used the term 'manic depressive insanity' to describe the whole spectrum of mood disorders, in a far wider sense than it is usually used today. In Kraepelin's classification this would include 'unipolar' clinical depression, as well as bipolar disorder and other mood disorders such as cyclothymia. These are characterised by problems with mood control and the psychotic episodes appear associated with disturbances in mood, and patients will often have periods of normal functioning between psychotic episodes even without medication. Schizophrenia is characterized by psychotic episodes which appear to be unrelated to disturbances in mood, and most non-medicated patients will show signs of disturbance between psychotic episodes.

During the 1960s and 1970s, psychosis was of particular interest to counterculture critics of mainstream psychiatric practice, who argued that it may simply be another way of constructing reality and is not necessarily a sign of illness. For example, R. D. Laing argued that psychosis is a symbolic way of expressing concerns in situations where such views may be unwelcome or uncomfortable to the recipients. He went on to say that psychosis could be also seen as a transcendental experience with healing and spiritual aspects. Arthur J. Deikman suggested use of the term "mystical psychosis" to characterize first-person accounts of psychotic experiences that are similar to reports of mystical experiences.Thomas Szasz focused on the social implications of labeling people as psychotic, a label he argues unjustly medicalises different views of reality so such unorthodox people can be controlled by society. Psychoanalysis has a detailed account of psychosis which differs markedly from that of psychiatry. Freud and Lacan outlined their perspective on the structure of psychosis in a number of works.

Since the 1970s, the introduction of a Recovery approach to mental health, which has been driven mainly by people who have experienced psychosis (or whatever name is used to describe their experiences), has led to a greater awareness that mental illness is not a lifelong disability, and that there is an expectation that recovery is possible, and probable with effective support.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Tsuang, Ming T.; William S. Stone, Stephen V. Faraone (July 2000). "Toward Reformulating the Diagnosis of Schizophrenia". American Journal of Psychiatry 157 (7): 1041–1050. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.7.1041. PMID 10873908. 
  2. ^ DeLage, J. (February 1955). "[Moderate psychosis caused by mumps in a child of nine years.]". Laval Médical 20 (2): 175–183. PMID 14382616. 
  3. ^ Tien AY (December 1991). "Distributions of hallucinations in the population". Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 26 (6): 287–92. PMID 1792560. 
  4. ^ van Os J, Hanssen M, Bijl RV, Ravelli A (September 2000). "Strauss (1969) revisited: a psychosis continuum in the general population?". Schizophr. Res. 45 (1-2): 11–20. PMID 10978868. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0920-9964(99)00224-8. 
  5. ^ Johns, Louise C.; Jim van Os (2001). "The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population". Clinical Psychology Review 21 (8): 1125–41. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00103-9. PMID 11702510. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272-7358(01)00103-9. Retrieved on 2006-08-19. 
  6. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "hallucinate". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=hallucinate&searchmode=none. Retrieved on October 15 2006. 
  7. ^ Honig A, Romme MA, Ensink BJ, Escher SD, Pennings MH, deVries MW (October 1998). "Auditory hallucinations: a comparison between patients and nonpatients". J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 186 (10): 646–51. doi:10.1097/00005053-199810000-00009. PMID 9788642. http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0022-3018&volume=186&issue=10&spage=646. 
  8. ^ Jaspers, Karl (1997-11-27) [1963]. Allgemeine Psychopathologie (General Psychopathology). Translated by J. Hoenig & M.W. Hamilton from German (Reprint edition ed.). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5775-9. 
  9. ^ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth edition - Text Revision (Published by the American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
  10. ^ a b Jauch, D. A.; William T. Carpenter, Jr. (February 1988). "Reactive psychosis. I. Does the pre-DSM-III concept define a third psychosis?". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 176 (2): 72–81. PMID 3276813. 
  11. ^ Jacobson J.L. and A.M. Jacobson, eds. Psychiatric Secrets (Philadelphia: Hanley and Belfus, 2001)
  12. ^ ""What’s in a Name?": A Brief Foray into the History of Insanity in England and the United States". Journal of the Academy of American Psychiatry and the Law (2005)
  13. ^ Hare, R. D. Psychopathy and Antisocial Personality Disorder: A Case of Diagnostic Confusion, Psychiatric Times, February 1996, XIII, Issue 2 Accessed June 26, 2006
  14. ^ Milton, John; Shazad Amin, Swaran P. Singh, Glynn Harrison, Peter Jones, Tim Croudace, Ian Medley, and John Brewin (May 2001). "Aggressive incidents in first-episode psychosis". British Journal of Psychiatry 178: 433–40. doi:10.1192/bjp.178.5.433. PMID 11331559. 
  15. ^ Foley, Sharon R.; Brendan D. Kelly, Mary Clarke, Orfhlaith McTigue, Maurice Gervin, Moyyad Kamali, Conall Larkin, Eadbhard O'Callaghan, and Stephen Browne (January 1, 2005). "Incidence and clinical correlates of aggression and violence at presentation in patients with first episode psychosis". Schizophrenia Research 72 (2-3): 161–168. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.03.010. PMID 15560961. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0920996404001069. Retrieved on 2006-10-21. 
  16. ^ Nestor, Paul G.; Matthew Kimble, Ileana Berman, and Joel Haycock (January 2002). "Psychosis, Psychopathy, and Homicide: A Preliminary Neuropsychological Inquiry". American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (1): 138–40. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.1.138. PMID 11772704. 
  17. ^ Overall JE, Gorham DR. The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Psychol Rep. 1962;10:799-812
  18. ^ Tien AY, Anthony JC (August 1990). "Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences". J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 178 (8): 473–80. PMID 2380692. 
  19. ^ Sharma, Verinder; Dwight Mazmanian (April 2003). "Sleep loss and postpartum psychosis". Bipolar Disorders 5 (2): 98–105. doi:10.1034/j.1399-5618.2003.00015.x. PMID 12680898. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=1398-5647&date=2003&volume=5&issue=2&spage=98. Retrieved on 2006-09-27. 
  20. ^ Chan-Ob, T.; V. Boonyanaruthee (September 1999). "Meditation in association with psychosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 82 (9): 925–930. PMID 10561951. 
  21. ^ Devillieres, P.; M. Opitz, P. Clervoy, and J. Stephany (May-June 1996). "[Delusion and sleep deprivation]". L'Encéphale 22 (3): 229–31. 
  22. ^ Ohayon, M. M.; R. G. Priest, M. Caulet, and C. Guilleminault (October 1996). "Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations: pathological phenomena?". British Journal of Psychiatry 169 (4): 459–67. doi:10.1192/bjp.169.4.459. PMID 8894197. http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=linkout&SEARCH=8894197.ui. Retrieved on 2006-10-21. 
  23. ^ Sethi NK, Robilotti E, Sadan Y (2005). "Neurological Manifestations Of Vitamin B-12 Deficiency". The Internet Journal of Nutrition and Wellness 2 (1). 
  24. ^ Masalha R, Chudakov B, Muhamad M, Rudoy I, Volkov I, Wirguin I (September 2001). "Cobalamin-responsive psychosis as the sole manifestation of vitamin B12 deficiency". Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 3 (9): 701–3. PMID 11574992. http://www.ima.org.il/imaj/dynamic/web/ArtFromPubmed.asp?year=2001&month=09&page=701. 
  25. ^ {http://www.dana.org/news/brainhealth/detail.aspx?id=9854 The Dana Guide to Brain Health]]
  26. ^ Lisanby, S. H.; C. Kohler, C. L. Swanson, and R. E. Gur (January 1998). "Psychosis Secondary to Brain Tumor". Seminars in clinical neuropsychiatry 3 (1): 12–22. PMID 10085187. 
  27. ^ McKeith, Ian G. (February 2002). "Dementia with Lewy bodies". British Journal of Psychiatry 180: 144–7. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.2.144. PMID 11823325. 
  28. ^ (Spanish) Rodriguez Gomez, Diego; Elvira Gonzalez Vazquez and Óscar Perez Carral (August 16-31, 2005). "Psicosis aguda como inicio de esclerosis multiple / Acute psychosis as the presenting symptom of multiple sclerosis / Psicose aguda como inicio de esclerose multipla". Revista de Neurología 41 (4): 255–6. PMID 16075405. http://www.revneurol.com/LinkOut/formMedLine.asp?Refer=2005320&Revista=RevNeurol. Retrieved on 2006-09-27. 
  29. ^ Bona, Joseph R.; Sondralyn M. Fackler, Morris J. Fendley and Charles B. Nemeroff (August 1998). "Neurosarcoidosis as a Cause of Refractory Psychosis: A Complicated Case Report". American Journal of Psychiatry 155 (8): 1106–8. PMID 9699702. http://www.ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/155/8/1106. Retrieved on 2006-09-29. 
  30. ^ Fallon BA, Nields JA (November 1994). "Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness". Am J Psychiatry 151 (11): 1571–83. PMID 7943444. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7943444. 
  31. ^ Hess A, Buchmann J, Zettl UK, et al (March 1999). "Borrelia burgdorferi central nervous system infection presenting as an organic schizophrenialike disorder". Biol. Psychiatry 45 (6): 795. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00277-7. PMID 10188012. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322398002777. 
  32. ^ van den Bergen HA, Smith JP, van der Zwan A (October 1993). "[Lyme psychosis]" (in Dutch; Flemish). Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 137 (41): 2098–100. PMID 8413733. 
  33. ^ Kararizou E, Mitsonis C, Dimopoulos N, Gkiatas K, Markou I, Kalfakis N (May-Jun 2006). "Psychosis or simply a new manifestation of neurosyphilis?". J. Int. Med. Res. 34 (3): 335–7. PMID 16866029. http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=0300-0605&volume=34&issue=3&spage=335&aulast=Kararizou. 
  34. ^ Brooke D, Jamie P, Slack R, Sulaiman M, Tyrer P (October 1987). "Neurosyphilis—a treatable psychosis". Br J Psychiatry 151: 556. doi:10.1192/bjp.151.4.556. PMID 3447677. 
  35. ^ Lesser JM, Hughes S (December 2006). "Psychosis-related disturbances. Psychosis, agitation, and disinhibition in Alzheimer's disease: definitions and treatment options". Geriatrics 61 (12): 14–20. PMID 17184138. 
  36. ^ Wedekind S (June 2005). "[Depressive syndrome, psychoses, dementia: frequent manifestations in Parkinson disease]" (in German). MMW Fortschr Med 147 (22): 11. PMID 15977623. 
  37. ^ Rossman, Phillip L.; Robert M. Vock (September 1956). "Postpartum Tetany and Psychosis Due to Hypocalcemia". California Medicine 85 (3): 190–3. PMID 13356186. 
  38. ^ Jana, D. K.; L. Romano-Jana (October 1973). "Hypernatremic psychosis in the elderly: case reports". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 21 (10): 473–7. PMID 4729012. 
  39. ^ Haensch, C. A.; G. Hennen and J. Jorg (April 1996). "[Reversible exogenous psychosis in thiazide-induced hyponatremia of 97 mmol/l]". Der Nervenarzt 67 (4): 319–22. PMID 8684511. 
  40. ^ Hafez, H.; J. S. Strauss, M. D. Aronson, and C. Holt (June 1984). "Hypokalemia-induced psychosis in a chronic schizophrenic patient". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 45 (6): 277–9. PMID 6725222. 
  41. ^ Konstantakos, Anastasios K.; Enrique Grisoni (May 25, 2006). "Hypomagnesemia". eMedicine. WebMD. http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic1122.htm. Retrieved on October 16, 2006. 
  42. ^ Velasco, P. Joel; Manoochehr Manshadi, Kevin Breen, and Steven Lippmann (December 1999). "Psychiatric Aspects of Parathyroid Disease". Psychosomatics 40 (6): 486–90. PMID 10581976. http://psy.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/40/6/486. Retrieved on 2006-10-17. 
  43. ^ Rosenthal, M.; I. Gil and B. Habot (1997). "Primary hyperparathyroidism: neuropsychiatric manifestations and case report". Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences 34 (2): 122–125. PMID 9231574. 
  44. ^ Nanji, A. A. (November 1984). "The psychiatric aspect of hypophosphatemia". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 29 (7): 599–600. PMID 6391648. 
  45. ^ Padder, Tanveer, Aparna Udyawar, Nouman Azhar, and Kamil Jaghab (December 2005) "Acute Hypoglycemia Presenting as Acute Psychosis" in Psychiatry online. Retrieved on 2006-09-27
  46. ^ Robert, M.; R. Sunitha, and N. K. Thulaseedharan (March 2006). "Neuropsychiatric manifestations systemic lupus erythematosus: A study from South India". Neurology India 54 (1): 75–7. PMID 16679649. http://www.neurologyindia.com/article.asp?issn=0028-3886;year=2006;volume=54;issue=1;spage=75;epage=77;aulast=Robert. Retrieved on 2006-09-29. 
  47. ^ Evans, Dwight L.; Karen I. Mason, Jane Leserman, Russell Bauer And John Petitto (2002-02-01). "Chapter 90: Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of HIV-1 Infection and AIDS". in Kenneth L Davis, Dennis Charney, Joseph T Coyle, Charles Nemeroff. Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1281–1301. ISBN 0-7817-2837-1. http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000149/CH146.html. Retrieved on 2006-10-16. 
  48. ^ Lowinger, Paul (July 1959). "Leprosy And Psychosis". American Journal of Psychiatry 116 (1): 32–37. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.116.1.32 (inactive 2008-06-25). PMID 13661445. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/116/1/32. Retrieved on 2006-10-17. 
  49. ^ Ponomareff, G. L. (June 1965). "Phenomenology Of Delusions In A Case Of Leprosy" (PDF). American Journal of Psychiatry 121 (12): 1211. PMID 14286061. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/121/12/1211. Retrieved on 2006-10-17. 
  50. ^ Tilluckdharry, C. C.; D. D. Chaddee, R. Doon, and J. Nehall (March 1996). "A case of vivax malaria presenting with psychosis". West Indian Medical Journal 45 (1): 39–40. PMID 8693739. 
  51. ^ Denier C, Orgibet A, Roffi F, Jouvent E, Buhl C, Niel F, Boespflug-Tanguy O, Said G, Ducreux D (2007). "Adult-onset vanishing white matter leukoencephalopathy presenting as psychosis". Neurology 68 (18): 1538–9. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000260701.76868.44. PMID 17470759. 
  52. ^ Hermle L, Becker FW, Egan PJ, Kolb G, Wesiack B, Spitzer M (1997). "[Metachromatic leukodystrophy simulating schizophrenia-like psychosis]" (in German). Der Nervenarzt 68 (9): 754–8. PMID 9411279. 
  53. ^ Black DN, Taber KH, Hurley RA (2003). "Metachromatic leukodystrophy: a model for the study of psychosis". The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences 15 (3): 289–93. PMID 12928504. free full text
  54. ^ Kumperscak HG, Paschke E, Gradisnik P, Vidmar J, Bradac SU (2005). "Adult metachromatic leukodystrophy: disorganized schizophrenia-like symptoms and postpartum depression in 2 sisters". Journal of psychiatry & neuroscience : JPN 30 (1): 33–6. PMID 15644995. 
  55. ^ Müller N, Gizycki-Nienhaus B, Botschev C, Meurer M (August 1993). "Cerebral involvement of scleroderma presenting as schizophrenia-like psychosis". Schizophr. Res. 10 (2): 179–81. PMID 8398950. 
  56. ^ Wilcox RA, To T, Koukourou A, Frasca J (November 2008). "Hashimoto's encephalopathy masquerading as acute psychosis". J Clin Neurosci 15 (11): 1301–4. doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2006.10.019. PMID 18313925. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0967-5868(07)00043-4. 
  57. ^ Gómez-Bernal GJ, Reboreda A, Romero F, Bernal MM, Gómez F (2007). "A Case of Hashimoto's Encephalopathy Manifesting as Psychosis". Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 9 (4): 318–9. PMID 17934563. 
  58. ^ Ray M, Kothur K, Padhy SK, Saran P (May 2007). "Hashimoto's encephalopathy in an adolescent boy". Indian J Pediatr 74 (5): 492–4. PMID 17526963. 
  59. ^ Steinberg, D.; S. R. Hirsch, S. D. Marston, K. Reynolds, and R. N. Sutton (May 1972). "Influenza infection causing manic psychosis". British Journal of Psychiatry 120 (558): 531–535. doi:10.1192/bjp.120.558.531. PMID 5041533. 
  60. ^ Maurizi, C. P. (February 1985). "Influenza and mania: a possible connection with the locus ceruleus". Southern Medical Journal 78 (2): 207–209. PMID 3975719. 
  61. ^ Keddie, K. M. (August 1965). "Toxic psychosis following mumps". British Journal of Psychiatry 111: 691–696. doi:10.1192/bjp.111.477.691. PMID 14337417. 
  62. ^ Degenhardt, L; Smith J, Steel R, Johnstone CE, Frith CD (2003). "Editorial: The link between cannabis use and psychosis: furthering the debate". Psychological Medicine 33: 3–6. PMID 12537030. 
  63. ^ Moore, TH; Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes TR, Jones PB, Burke M, Lewis G (July 28, 2007). "Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review". Lancet 370: 319–28. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3. PMID 17662880. 
  64. ^ Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M (2001) (PDF). Comorbidity between cannabis use and psychosis: Modelling some possible relationships.. Technical Report No. 121.. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre.. http://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/NDARCWeb.nsf/resources/TR_18/$file/TR.121.PDF. Retrieved on 2006-08-19. 
  65. ^ Tien AY, Anthony JC (August 1990). "Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences". J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 178 (8): 473–80. PMID 2380692. 
  66. ^ Cargiulo T (March 2007). "Understanding the health impact of alcohol dependence". Am J Health Syst Pharm 64 (5 Suppl 3): S5–11. doi:10.2146/ajhp060647. PMID 17322182. 
  67. ^ Schuckit MA (November 1983). "Alcoholism and other psychiatric disorders". Hosp Community Psychiatry 34 (11): 1022–7. PMID 6642446. 
  68. ^ [Hall RCW, Zisook S. Paradoxical Reactions to Benzodiazepines. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 11: 99S-104S}
  69. ^ Lader M, Morton S. Benzodiazepine Problems. British Journal of Addiction 1991; 86: 823-828}
  70. ^ Benzodiazepines: Paradoxical Reactions & Long-Term Side-Effects
  71. ^ Hansson O, Tonnby B. [Serious Psychological Symptoms Caused by Clonazepam.] Läkartidningen 1976; 73: 1210-1211.
  72. ^ Pétursson H (November 1994). "The benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome". Addiction 89 (11): 1455–9. PMID 7841856. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0965-2140&date=1994&volume=89&issue=11&spage=1455. 
  73. ^ Larson, Michael (2006-03-30). "Alcohol-Related Psychosis". eMedicine. WebMD. http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3113.htm. Retrieved on September 27 2006. 
  74. ^ Soyka, Michael (March 1990). "Psychopathological characteristics in alcohol hallucinosis and paranoid schizophrenia". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 81 (3): 255–9. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb06491.x. PMID 2343749. 
  75. ^ Gossman, William (November 19, 2005). "Delirium Tremens". eMedicine. WebMD. http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic123.htm. Retrieved on October 16 2006. 
  76. ^ Cohen JS (December 2001). "Peripheral Neuropathy Associated with Fluoroquinolones" (PDF). Ann Pharmacother 35 (12): 1540–7. doi:10.1345/aph.1Z429. PMID 11793615. http://fqvictims.org/fqvictims/News/neuropathy/Neuropathy.pdf. 
  77. ^ Adams M, Tavakoli H (2006). "Gatifloxacin-induced hallucinations in a 19-year-old man". Psychosomatics 47 (4): 360. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.47.4.360. PMID 16844899. http://psy.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/47/4/360. 
  78. ^ Mulhall JP, Bergmann LS (July 1995). "Ciprofloxacin-induced acute psychosis". Urology 46 (1): 102–3. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(99)80171-X. PMID 7604468. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0090-4295(99)80171-X. 
  79. ^ Reeves RR (1992). "Ciprofloxacin-induced psychosis". Ann Pharmacother 26 (7-8): 930–1. PMID 1504404. 
  80. ^ Yasuda H, Yoshida A, Masuda Y, Fukayama M, Kita Y, Inamatsu T (March 1999). "[Levofloxacin-induced neurological adverse effects such as convulsion, involuntary movement (tremor, myoclonus and chorea like), visual hallucination in two elderly patients]" (in Japanese). Nippon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi 36 (3): 213–7. PMID 10388331. 
  81. ^ Azar S, Ramjiani A, Van Gerpen JA (April 2005). "Ciprofloxacin-induced chorea". Mov. Disord. 20 (4): 513–4; author reply 514. doi:10.1002/mds.20425. PMID 15739219. 
  82. ^ Kukushkin ML, Igonkina SI, Guskova TA (April 2004). "Mechanisms of pefloxacin-induced pain". Bull. Exp. Biol. Med. 137 (4): 336–8. doi:10.1023/B:BEBM.0000035122.45148.93. PMID 15452594. 
  83. ^ Christie MJ, Wong K, Ting RH, Tam PY, Sikaneta TG (May 2005). "Generalized seizure and toxic epidermal necrolysis following levofloxacin exposure". Ann Pharmacother 39 (5): 953–5. doi:10.1345/aph.1E587. PMID 15827068. http://www.theannals.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15827068. 
  84. ^ Marsepoil T, Petithory J, Faucher JM, Ho P, Viriot E, Benaiche F (1993). "[Encephalopathy and memory disorders during treatments with mefloquine]" (in French). Rev Med Interne 14 (8): 788–91. PMID 8191092. 
  85. ^ Phillips-Howard PA, ter Kuile FO (June 1995). "CNS adverse events associated with antimalarial agents. Fact or fiction?". Drug Saf 12 (6): 370–83. PMID 8527012. 
  86. ^ Sexton, J. D.; D. J. Pronchik (September 1997). "Diphenhydramine-induced psychosis with therapeutic doses". American Journal of Emergency Medicine 15 (5): 548–9. doi:10.1016/S0735-6757(97)90212-6. PMID 9270406. http://home.mdconsult.com/start_session?bp=pubmed&loginpage=ft_onewindow&targeturl=/public/journal/view%3Fjtc=0AA2%26vol=15%26iss=5%26page=548%26auth=Sexton%2BJD%26title=Diphenhydramine-induced%2Bpsychosis%2Bwith%2Btherapeutic%2Bdoses.%26pubmedid=9270406. Retrieved on 2006-09-29. 
  87. ^ Lang, K.; H. Sigusch, and S. Muller (December 8, 1995). "[An anticholinergic syndrome with hallucinatory psychosis after diphenhydramine poisoning]". Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 120 (49): 1695–1698. PMID 7497894. 
  88. ^ Schreiber, W.; A. M. Pauls and J. C. Kreig (February 5, 1988). "[Toxic psychosis as an acute manifestation of diphenhydramine poisoning]". Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 113 (5): 180–183. PMID 3338401. 
  89. ^ Timnak, Charles; Ondria Gleason (January-February 2004). "Promethazine-Induced Psychosis in a 16-Year-Old Girl". Psychosomatics 45 (1): 89–90. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.45.1.89. PMID 14709767. 
  90. ^ Official Journal of American Pediatrics - PEDIATRICS Vol. 108 No. 3 September 2001, p. e52
  91. ^ de Paola, Luciano; Maria Joana Mäder, Francisco M.B. Germiniani, Patrícia Coral, Jorge A.A. Zavala, Djon J. Watzo, Jorge Kanegusuku, Carlos E.S. Silvado, and Lineu C. Werneck (June 2004). "Bizarre behavior during intracarotid sodium amytal testing (Wada test): Are they predictable?". Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria 62 (2B): 444–448. doi:10.1590/S0004-282X2004000300012. PMID 15273841. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-282X2004000300012&tlng=es&lng=en&nrm=iso. Retrieved on 2006-10-15. 
  92. ^ Sarrecchia, C.; P. Sordillo, G. Conte, and G. Rocchi (October-December 1998). "[Barbiturate withdrawal syndrome: a case associated with the abuse of a headache medication]". Annali Italiani di Medicina Interna 13 (4): 237–239. PMID 10349206. 
  93. ^ White, M. C.; J. J. Silverman, and J. W. Harbison (February 1982). "Psychosis associated with clonazepam therapy for blepharospasm". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 170 (2): 117–9. PMID 7057171. 
  94. ^ Jaffe, R.; E. Gibson (June 1986). "Clonazepam withdrawal psychosis". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 6 (3): 193. doi:10.1097/00004714-198606000-00021. PMID 3711371. 
  95. ^ Hallberg, R. J.; K. Lessler and F. J. Kane (August 1964). "Korsakoff-Like Psychosis Associated With Benzodiazepine Overdosage" (PDF). American Journal of Psychiatry 121 (2): 188–189. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.121.2.188 (inactive 2008-06-25). PMID 14194223. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/121/2/188. Retrieved on 2006-10-15. 
  96. ^ Bergman, K. R.; C. Pearson, G. W. Waltz, and R. Evans III month=December (1980). "Atropine-induced psychosis. An unusual complication of therapy with inhaled atropine sulfate". Chest 78 (6): 891–893. doi:10.1378/chest.78.6.891. PMID 7449475. 
  97. ^ Varghese, S.; N. Vettath, K. Iyer, J. M. Puliyel, and M. M. Puliyel (June 1990). "Ocular atropine induced psychosis--is there a direct access route to the brain?". Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 38 (6): 444–445. PMID 2384469. 
  98. ^ Barak, Segev; Ina Weiner (September 13, 2006). "Scopolamine Induces Disruption of Latent Inhibition Which is Prevented by Antipsychotic Drugs and an Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor". Neuropsychopharmacology 32: 989. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301208. PMID 16971898. 
  99. ^ Kurzbaum, Alberto; Claudia Simsolo, Ludmilla Kvasha and Arnon Blum (July 2001). "Toxic Delirium due to Datura Stramonium" (PDF). Israel Medical Association Journal 3 (7): 538–539. PMID 11791426. http://www.ima.org.il/imaj/ar01jul-16.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-10-17. 
  100. ^ Ettinger AB. "Psychotropic effects of antiepileptic drugs". Neurology. 2006 Dec 12;67(11):1916-25.
  101. ^ a b c d e Diaz, Jaime. How Drugs Influence Behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1996.
  102. ^ Brady, K. T.; R. B. Lydiard, R. Malcolm, and J. C. Ballenger (December 1991). "Cocaine-induced psychosis". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 52 (12): 509–512. PMID 1752853. 
  103. ^ Lake CR, Masson EB, Quirk RS. (1988). "Psychiatric side effects attributed to phenylpropanolamine". Pharmacopsychiatry 21: 171–81. PMID 3060884. 
  104. ^ "Bromocriptine and psychosis: A literature review". Psychiatric Quarterly 66 (1): 87–95. 1995. doi:10.1007/BF02238717. http://www.springerlink.com/content/y42v466374524k1m/. Retrieved on 2008-09-06. 
  105. ^ [1]
  106. ^ Moore, M T; Nathan D, Elliot AR, Laubach C (1935). "Encephalographic studies in mental disease". American Journal of Psychiatry 92 (1): 43–67. 
  107. ^ Pantelis, C; Velakoulis D, McGorry PD, Wood SJ, Suckling J, Phillips, LJ, Yung AR, Bullmore ET, Brewer W, Soulsby B, Desmond, P, McGuire PK (2003). "Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison". Lancet 25 (361 (9354)): 281–8. PMID 12559861. 
  108. ^ Ho, BC; Alicata D, Ward J, Moser DJ, O'Leary DS, Arndt S, Andreasen NC (2003). "Untreated initial psychosis: relation to cognitive deficits and brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia". American Journal of Psychiatry 160 (1): 142–8. PMID 12505813. 
  109. ^ Copolov DL, Seal ML, Maruff P, et al (April 2003). "Cortical activation associated with the experience of auditory hallucinations and perception of human speech in schizophrenia: a PET correlation study". Psychiatry Res 122 (3): 139–52. PMID 12694889. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092549270200121X. 
  110. ^ Bell, V., Halligan, P.W. & Ellis, H.D. (2006) A Cognitive Neuroscience of Belief. In P.W. Halligan & M. Aylward (eds) The Power of Belief. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  111. ^ Lohr, JB; Caligiuri MP (1997). "Lateralized hemispheric dysfunction in the major psychotic disorders: historical perspectives and findings from a study of motor asymmetry in older patients". Schizophrophrenia Research 30 (27 (2-3)): 191–8. PMID 9416648. 
  112. ^ Pizaagalli, D; Lehmann D, Gianotti L, Koenig T, Tanaka H, Wackermann J, Brugger P. (2000). "Brain electric correlates of strong belief in paranormal phenomena: intracerebral EEG source and regional Omega complexity analyses". Psychiatry Research 100 (3): 139–154. PMID 11120441. 
  113. ^ Makarec, K; Persinger, MA (1985). "Temporal lobe signs: electroencephalographic validity and enhanced scores in special populations". Perceptual and Motor Skills 60 (3): 831–42. PMID 3927256. 
  114. ^ Weinstein, S; Graves RE (2002). "Are creativity and schizotypy products of a right hemisphere bias?". Brain and Cognition 49 (1): 138–51. PMID 12027399. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278262601914939. Retrieved on 2006-08-19. 
  115. ^ Kapur S, Mizrahi R, Li M (November 2005). "From dopamine to salience to psychosis--linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis". Schizophr. Res. 79 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.01.003. PMID 16005191. 
  116. ^ Jones HM, Pilowsky LS (October 2002). "Dopamine and antipsychotic drug action revisited". Br J Psychiatry 181: 271–5. PMID 12356650. http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12356650. 
  117. ^ Soyka, Michael; Thomas Zetzsche, Stefan Dresel, and Klaus Tatsch (May 2000). "FDG-PET and IBZM-SPECT Suggest Reduced Thalamic Activity but No Dopaminergic Dysfunction in Chronic Alcohol Hallucinosis". Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences 12 (2): 287–288. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12.2.287. PMID 11001615. 
  118. ^ Zoldan, J.; G. Friedberg, M. Livneh, and E. Melamed. (July 1995). "Psychosis in advanced Parkinson's disease: treatment with ondansetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist". Neurology 45 (7): 1305–1308. PMID 7617188. 
  119. ^ Healy, David (2002). The Creation of Psychopharmacology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00619-4. 
  120. ^ Blakemore, SJ; Smith J, Steel R, Johnstone CE, Frith CD (2000). "The perception of self-produced sensory stimuli in patients with auditory hallucinations and passivity experiences: evidence for a breakdown in self-monitoring". Psychological Medicine 30 (5): 1131–9. PMID 12027049. 
  121. ^ Birchwood, M; Trower P (2006). "The future of cognitive-behavioural therapy for psychosis: not a quasi-neuroleptic". British Journal of Psychiatry 188: 108–108. PMID 16449695. 
  122. ^ Haddock, G; Lewis S (2005). "Psychological interventions in early psychosis". Schizophrenia Bulletin 31 (3): 697–704. PMID 16006594. 
  123. ^ Nathans-Barel, I.; P. Feldman, B. Berger, I. Modai and H. Silver (2005). "Animal-assisted therapy ameliorates anhedonia in schizophrenia patients". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 74 (1): 31–35. doi:10.1159/000082024. 
  124. ^ Birchwood, M; P. Todd, C. Jackson (1998). "Early Intervention in Psychosis: The Critical Period Hypothesis". British Journal of Psychiatry 172 (33): 53–59. 
  125. ^ French, Paul; Anthony Morrison (2004). Early Detection and cognitive therapy for people at high risk of developing psychosis. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-470-86314-5. 
  126. ^ Beer, M D (1995). "Psychosis: from mental disorder to disease concept". Hist Psychiatry 6 (22(II)): 177–200. PMID 11639691. 
  127. ^ Psychosis, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
  128. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Douglas Harper. 2001. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=psychosis&searchmode=none. Retrieved on 2006-08-19. 

[edit] Further reading

  • Sims, A. (2002) Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology (3rd edition). Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 0-7020-2627-1

[edit] Personal accounts

[edit] External links

v • d • e
Medicine > Psychiatry
Subspecialties
Societies
Related topics
Lists
v • d • e
Mood disorder: Bipolar disorder
History
Symptoms
Spectrum
Treatment
Non-pharmaceutical
Related
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis"
Personal tools