Mercury (planet)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the planet. For other uses, see Mercury.
Mercury  Astronomical symbol of mercury
Mercury
MESSENGER false color image of Mercury
Designations
Adjective Mercurian, Mercurial[1]
Epoch J2000
Aphelion 69,816,900 km
0.466 697 AU
Perihelion 46,001,200 km
0.307 499 AU
Semi-major axis 57,909,100 km
0.387 098 AU
Eccentricity 0.205 630[3]
Orbital period 87.969 1 d
(0.240 846 a)
Synodic period 115.88 d[3]
Average orbital speed 47.87 km/s[3]
Mean anomaly 174.796°
Inclination 7.005° to Ecliptic
3.38° to Sun’s equator
6.34° to Invariable plane[4]
Longitude of ascending node 48.331°
Argument of perihelion 29.124°
Satellites None
Physical characteristics
Mean radius 2,439.7 ± 1.0 km[5][6]
0.3829 Earths
Flattening < 0.0006[6]
Surface area 7.48 × 107 km²
0.108 Earths[5]
Volume 6.083 × 1010 km³
0.054 Earths[5]
Mass 3.3022 × 1023 kg
0.055 Earths[5]
Mean density 5.427 g/cm³[5]
Equatorial surface gravity 3.7 m/s²
0.38 g[5]
Escape velocity 4.25 km/s[5]
Sidereal rotation
period		 58.646 day
1407.5 h[5]
Equatorial rotation velocity 10.892 km/h (3.026 m/s)
Axial tilt 2.11′ ± 0.1′[7]
North pole right ascension 18 h 44 min 2 s
281.01°[3]
North pole declination 61.45°[3]
Albedo 0.119 (bond)
0.106 (geom.)[3]
Surface temp.
   0°N, 0°W
   85°N, 0°W
min mean max
100 K 340 K 700 K
80 K 200 K 380 K
Apparent magnitude up to −1.9[3]
Angular diameter 4.5" – 13"[3]
Atmosphere
Surface pressure trace
Composition 42% Molecular oxygen
29.0% sodium
22.0% hydrogen
6.0% helium
0.5% potassium
Trace amounts of argon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, xenon, krypton, & neon[3]

Mercury (pronounced en-us-Mercury.ogg /ˈmɝːkjʊəri/ (help·info)) is the innermost and smallest planet in the Solar System,[8] orbiting the Sun once every 88 days. The orbit of Mercury has the highest eccentricity of all the Solar System planets, and it has the smallest axial tilt. It completes three rotations about the axis for every two orbits. The perihelion of Mercury's orbit precesses around the Sun at an excess of 43 arcseconds per century; a phenomenon that was explained in the 20th century by Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity.[9] Mercury is bright when viewed from Earth, ranging from −2.0 to 5.5 in apparent magnitude, but is not easily seen as its greatest angular separation from the Sun is only 28.3°. Since Mercury is normally lost in the glare of the Sun, unless there is a solar eclipse, Mercury can only be viewed in morning or evening twilight.

Comparatively little is known about Mercury; ground-based telescopes reveal only an illuminated crescent with limited detail. The first of two spacecraft to visit the planet was Mariner 10, which mapped only about 45% of the planet’s surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft, which mapped another 30% during its flyby of January 14, 2008. MESSENGER will make one more pass by Mercury in 2009, followed by orbital insertion in 2011, and will then survey and map the entire planet.

Mercury is similar in appearance to the Moon: it is heavily cratered with regions of smooth plains, has no natural satellites and no substantial atmosphere. However, unlike the moon, it has a large iron core, which generates a magnetic field about 1% as strong as that of the Earth.[10] It is an exceptionally dense planet due to the large relative size of its core. Surface temperatures range from about 90 to 700 K (−183 °C to 427 °C, −297 °F to 801 °F),[11] with the subsolar point being the hottest and the bottoms of craters near the poles being the coldest.

Recorded observations of Mercury date back to at least the first millennium BC. Before the 4th century BC, Greek astronomers believed the planet to be two separate objects: one visible only at sunrise, which they called Apollo; the other visible only at sunset, which they called Hermes.[12] The English name for the planet comes from the Romans, who named it after the Roman god Mercury, which they equated with the Greek Hermes. The astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Hermes' caduceus.[13]

Contents

Internal structure

Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, and is a rocky body like the Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of 2,439.7 km.[3] Mercury is even smaller—albeit more massive—than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material.[14] Mercury's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm³, only slightly less than Earth’s density of 5.515 g/cm³.[3] If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm³ versus Earth’s 4.4 g/cm³.[15]

1. Crust—100–300 km thick
2. Mantle—600 km thick
3. Core—1,800 km radius

Mercury’s density can be used to infer details of its inner structure. While the Earth’s high density results appreciably from gravitational compression, particularly at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not nearly as strongly compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich in iron.[16]

Geologists estimate that Mercury’s core occupies about 42% of its volume; for Earth this proportion is 17%. Recent research strongly suggests Mercury has a molten core.[17][18] Surrounding the core is a 500–700 km mantle consisting of silicates.[19][20] Based on data from the Mariner 10 mission and Earth-based observation, Mercury’s crust is believed to be 100–300 km thick.[21] One distinctive feature of Mercury’s surface is the presence of numerous narrow ridges, and these can extend up to several hundred kilometers. It is believed that these were formed as Mercury’s core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified.[22]

Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other major planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal-silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteors, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass.[23] However, early in the solar system’s history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately 1/6 that mass and several hundred kilometers across.[23] The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component.[23] A similar process has been proposed to explain the formation of Earth’s Moon (see giant impact theory).[23]

Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun's energy output had stabilized. The planet would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the protosun contracted, temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K (Celsius equivalents about 273 degrees less), and possibly even as high as 10,000 K.[24] Much of Mercury’s surface rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures, forming an atmosphere of "rock vapor" which could have been carried away by the solar wind.[24]

A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting, which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material.[25] Each of these hypotheses predicts a different surface composition, and two upcoming space missions, MESSENGER and BepiColombo, both aim to make observations to test them.[26][27]

Surface geology

First high-resolution image of Mercury transmitted by MESSENGER (false color)
Image from MESSENGER's second Mercury flyby. Kuiper crater is just below center. An extensive ray system emanates from the crater near the top.
Main article: Geology of Mercury

Mercury’s surface is overall very similar in appearance to that of the Moon, showing extensive mare-like plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years. Since our knowledge of Mercury's geology has been based on the 1975 Mariner flyby and terrestrial observations, it is the least understood of the terrestrial planets.[18] As data from the recent MESSENGER flyby is processed this knowledge will increase. For example, an unusual crater with radiating troughs has been discovered which scientists are calling "the spider."[28]

Albedo features refer to areas of markedly different reflectivity, as seen by telescopic observation. Mercury possesses Dorsa (also called "wrinkle-ridges"), Moon-like highlands, Montes (mountains), Planitiae, or plains, Rupes (escarpments), and Valles (valleys).[29][30]

Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its formation 4.6 billion years ago, as well as during a possibly separate subsequent episode called the late heavy bombardment that came to an end 3.8 billion years ago.[31] During this period of intense crater formation, the planet received impacts over its entire surface,[30] facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down.[32] During this time the planet was volcanically active; basins such as the Caloris Basin were filled by magma from within the planet, which produced smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon.[33][34]

Data from the October 2008 flyby of MESSENGER gave researchers a greater appreciation for the jumbled nature of Mercury's surface. Mercury's surface is more heterogeneous than either Mars or earth's Moon, both of which contain significant stretches of similar geology, such as maria and plateaus.[35]

Impact basins and craters

Mercury’s Caloris Basin is one of the largest impact features in the Solar System.

Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across. They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants. Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity.[36]

The largest known craters are Caloris Basin, with a diameter of 1,550 km,[37] and the Skinakas Basin with an outer-ring diameter of 2,300 km.[38] The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric ring over 2 km tall surrounding the impact crater. At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the "Weird Terrain". One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around the planet, converging at the basin’s antipode (180 degrees away). The resulting high stresses fractured the surface.[39] Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin’s antipode.[40]

Overall, about 15 impact basins have been identified on the imaged part of Mercury. A notable basin is the 400 km wide, multi-ring, Tolstoj Basin which has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km from its rim and its floor has been filled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km diameter rim.[36] Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes, including Solar wind and micrometeorite impacts.[41]

Plains

There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury.[42][36] Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces,[36] predating the heavily cratered terrain. These inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km in diameter.[42] It is not clear whether they are of volcanic or impact origin.[42] The inter-crater plains are distributed roughly uniformly over the entire surface of the planet.

The so-called “Weird Terrain” was formed by the Caloris Basin impact at its antipodal point.

Smooth plains are widespread flat areas which fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to the lunar maria. Notably, they fill a wide ring surrounding the Caloris Basin. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains. Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localisation and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins.[36] All the Mercurian smooth plains formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket.[36] The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain, broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern. It is not clear whether they are volcanic lavas induced by the impact, or a large sheet of impact melt.[36]

One unusual feature of the planet’s surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, which crisscross the plains. As the planet’s interior cooled, it may have contracted and its surface began to deform, creating these features. The folds can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smoother plains, indicating that the folds are more recent.[43] Mercury’s surface is flexed by significant tidal bulges raised by the Sun—the Sun’s tides on Mercury are about 17 times stronger than the Moon’s on Earth.[44]

Surface conditions and "atmosphere" (exosphere)

The mean surface temperature of Mercury is 442.5 K,[3] but it ranges from 100 K to 700 K,[45] due to the absence of an atmosphere. On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K.[46] The intensity of sunlight on Mercury’s surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370Wm−2).[47]

Radar image of Mercury's north pole

Despite the generally extremely high temperature of its surface, observations strongly suggest that ice exists on Mercury. The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below 102 K; far lower than the global average.[48] Water ice strongly reflects radar, and observations by the 70m Goldstone telescope and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of very high radar reflection near the poles.[49] While ice is not the only possible cause of these reflective regions, astronomers believe it is the most likely.[50]

The icy regions are believed to be covered to a depth of only a few meters,[quantify] and contain about 1014–1015 kg of ice.[51] By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4 × 1018 kg, and Mars' south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water.[51] The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet’s interior or deposition by impacts of comets.[51]

Size comparison of terrestrial planets (left to right): Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars

Mercury is too small for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; however, it does have a "tenuous surface-bounded exosphere"[52] containing hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium and potassium. This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury’s magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury’s crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. Water vapor is present, being brought to Mercury by a combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water "where none existed before from the ingredients of solar wind and Mercury rock" (both contain hydrogen and oxygen), and "reservoirs of water ice in small areas of Mercury's poles where local topography creates permanently shadowed spots in crater walls that might trap water over the age of the solar system".[dubious – discuss] MESSENGER found high proportions of calcium, helium, hydroxide, magnesium, oxygen, potassium, silicon, sodium, and water. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+, OH-, and H2O+ was a surprise.[53][54] Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind.[55][56]

Sodium and potassium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980s, and are believed to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts. Due to the ability of these materials to diffuse sunlight, Earth-based observers can readily detect their composition in the atmosphere. Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic dipoles. This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface.[57]

Magnetic field and magnetosphere

Graph showing relative strength of Mercury's magnetic field

Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field. According to measurements taken by Mariner 10, it is about 1.1% as strong as the Earth’s. The magnetic field strength at the Mercurian equator is about 300 nT.[58][59] Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar in nature.[57] Unlike Earth, however, Mercury's poles are nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis.[60] Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable.[60]

It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by way of a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth.[61][62] This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect.[63]

Mercury’s magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere. The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within the Earth,[57] is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's surface.[60] Observations taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic particles were detected in the planet's magnetotail, which indicates a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere.[57]

Orbit and rotation

Orbit of Mercury (yellow)

Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets; its eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from 46 to 70 million kilometers. It takes 88 days to complete an orbit. The diagram on the left illustrates the effects of the eccentricity, showing Mercury’s orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis. The higher velocity of the planet when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval. The size of the spheres, inversely proportional to their distance from the Sun, is used to illustrate the varying heliocentric distance. This varying distance to the Sun, combined with a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance of the planet’s rotation around its axis, result in complex variations of the surface temperature.[14]

Mercury’s orbit is inclined by 7° to the plane of Earth’s orbit (the ecliptic), as shown in the diagram on the right. As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between the Earth and the Sun. This occurs about every seven years on average.[64]

Orbit of Mercury as seen from the ascending node (bottom) and from 10° above (top)

Mercury’s axial tilt is almost zero,[65][66] with the best measured value as low as 0.027°.[7] This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which boasts the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees. This means that to an observer at Mercury’s poles the center of the Sun never rises more than 2.1′ above the horizon.[7]

At certain points on Mercury’s surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun rise about halfway, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day. This is because approximately four days prior to perihelion, Mercury’s angular orbital velocity exactly equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun’s apparent motion ceases; at perihelion, Mercury’s angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity. Thus, the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four days after perihelion, the Sun’s normal apparent motion resumes at these points.[14]

After one orbit, Mercury has rotated 1.5 times, so after two complete orbits the same hemisphere is again illuminated.

Spin–orbit resonance

For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and keeping the same face directed towards the Sun at all times, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth. However, radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun; the eccentricity of Mercury’s orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly still in Mercury’s sky.[67]

The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face. This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth. Due to Mercury’s 3:2 spin–orbit resonance, a solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) lasts about 176 Earth days.[14] A sidereal day (the period of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days.[14]

Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets.[68][14] This is thought to explain Mercury’s 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the more usual 1:1), since this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity.[69]

Advance of perihelion

Main article: Tests of general relativity#Perihelion_precession_of_Mercury

During the 19th century, the French mathematician Le Verrier noticed that the slow precession of Mercury’s orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He proposed that another planet might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun to account for this perturbation. (Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun.) The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place great faith in this explanation, and the hypothetical planet was even named Vulcan. However, no such planet was ever found.[70]

The precession of Mercury is 5600 arc seconds per century. Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the effects from the other planets, predicts a precession of 5557 seconds of arc per century.[71] In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession. The effect is very small: the Mercurian relativistic perihelion advance excess is just 42.98 arcseconds per century, therefore it requires a little over twelve million orbits for a full excess turn. Similar, but much smaller effects, operate for other planets, being 8.62 arcseconds per century for Venus, 3.84 for Earth, 1.35 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus.[72][73]

Observation

Mercury’s apparent magnitude varies between about −2.0—brighter than Sirius—and 5.5.[74] Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun’s glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight. The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures which prevent its pointing too close to the Sun.[75]

Like the Moon, Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth, being "new" at inferior conjunction and "full" at superior conjunction. The planet is rendered invisible on both of these occasions by virtue of its rising and setting in concert with the Sun in each case. The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west, respectively, when Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at aphelion.[76][77] At greatest elongation west, Mercury rises at its earliest before the Sun, and at greatest elongation east, it sets at its latest after the Sun.[78]

Mercury attains inferior conjunction every 116 days on average,[3] but this interval can range from 111 days to 121 days due to the planet’s eccentric orbit. Mercury can come as close as 77.3 million km to the Earth.[3] In 871, the nearest approach was the first in about 41,000 years to be closer than 82.2 Gm, something that has happened 68 times since then, as of 2008. After much longer gaps, the next approach to within 82.1 Gm is in 2679, and to 82 Gm in 4487. But it will not be closer to Earth than 80 Gm until 28,622.[clarification needed][79] In its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of inferior conjunction. This large range arises from the planet’s high orbital eccentricity.[14]

Mercury is more often easily visible from Earth’s Southern Hemisphere than from its Northern Hemisphere; this is because its maximum possible elongations west of the Sun always occur when it is early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, while its maximum possible eastern elongations happen during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere.[78] In both of these cases, the angle Mercury strikes with the ecliptic is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours before the Sun in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter in countries located at southern temperate zone latitudes, such as Argentina and New Zealand.[78] By contrast, at northern temperate latitudes, Mercury is never above the horizon of a more-or-less fully dark night sky. Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse.[80]

Mercury is brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a gibbous phase, between either quarter phase and full. Although the planet is further away from Earth when it is gibbous than when it is a crescent, the greater illuminated area visible more than compensates for the greater distance.[74] The opposite is true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a thin crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous.[81]

Studies of Mercury

Ancient astronomers

The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the MUL.APIN tablets. These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC.[82] The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the MUL.APIN tablets is transcribed as UDU.IDIM.GU4.UD ("the jumping planet").[b][83] Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the Gods in their mythology.[84]

The ancient Greeks of Hesiod's time knew the planet as Στίλβων (Stilbon), meaning "the gleaming", and Ἑρμάων (Hermaon).[85] Later Greeks called the planet Apollo when it was visible in the morning sky and Hermes when visible in the evening. Around the 4th century BC, however, Greek astronomers came to understand that the two names referred to the same body. The Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman messenger god, Mercury (Latin Mercurius), which they equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across the sky faster than any other planet.[12][86]

In ancient China, Mercury was known as Ch'en-Hsing, the Hour Star. It was associated with the direction north and the phase of water in the Wu Xing.[87] Hindu mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought to preside over Wednesday.[88] The god Odin (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the planet Mercury and the name Wednesday was derived from Woden's day.[89] The Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld.[90]

Ground-based telescopic research

Transit of Mercury. Mercury is the small dot in the lower center, in front of the sun. The dark area on the left of the solar disk is a sunspot.

The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Galileo in the early 17th century. Although he observed phases when he looked at Venus, his telescope was not powerful enough to see the phases of Mercury. In 1631 Pierre Gassendi made the first observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler. In 1639 Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon. The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury orbited around the Sun.[14]

A very rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front of another (occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of May 28, 1737 is the only one historically observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.[91] The next occultation of Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133.[92]

The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury mean that it has been far less studied than the other planets. In 1800 Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed 20 km high mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°.[93] In the 1880s Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury’s rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking.[94] This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation and is shown by Earth’s Moon. The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations.[57] Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map.[95]

In June 1962 Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences lead by Vladimir Kotelnikov became first to bounce radar signal off Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet.[96][97][98] Three years later radar observations by Americans Gordon Pettengill and R. Dyce using 300-meter Arecibo Observatory radio telescope in Puerto Rico showed conclusively that the planet’s rotational period was about 59 days.[99][100] The theory that Mercury’s rotation was synchronous became widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced. If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to explain the observations.[101]

Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury’s orbital period, and proposed that a different form of tidal locking had occurred in which the planet’s orbital and rotational periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance.[102] Data from Mariner 10 subsequently confirmed this view.[103] This means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not "wrong". Instead, the astronomers saw the same features during every second orbit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the Sun, since the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions.[93]

Ground-based observations did not shed much further light on the innermost planet, and it was not until the first space probe flew past Mercury that many of its most fundamental properties became known. However, recent technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations. In 2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5 meter Hale telescope. They provided the first views that resolved surface features on the parts of Mercury which were not imaged in the Mariner mission.[104] Later imaging has shown evidence of a huge double-ringed impact basin even larger than the Caloris Basin in the non-Mariner-imaged hemisphere. It has informally been dubbed the Skinakas Basin.[38] Most of the planet has been mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope, with 5 km resolution, including polar deposits in shadowed craters of what may be water ice.[105]

The Mariner 10 probe, the first probe to visit the innermost planet

Research with space probes

Main article: Exploration of Mercury

Reaching Mercury from Earth poses significant technical challenges, since the planet orbits so much closer to the Sun than does the Earth. A Mercury-bound spacecraft launched from Earth must travel over 91 million kilometers into the Sun’s gravitational potential well. Mercury has an orbital speed of 48 km/s, while Earth’s orbital speed is 30 km/s. Thus the spacecraft must make a large change in velocity (delta-v) to enter into a Hohmann transfer orbit that passes near Mercury, as compared compared to the delta-v required for other planetary missions.[106]

The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun’s potential well becomes kinetic energy; requiring another large delta-v change to do anything other than rapidly pass by Mercury. In order to land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is ruled out because the planet has very little atmosphere. A trip to Mercury actually requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the solar system completely. As a result, only two space probes have visited the planet so far.[107] A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.[108]

Mariner 10

Main article: Mariner 10
View of Mercury from Mariner 10

The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA’s Mariner 10 (1974–75).[12] The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational “slingshot” effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets.[106] Mariner 10 provided the first close-up images of Mercury’s surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps which were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools.[109] Unfortunately, due to the length of Mariner 10's orbital period, the same face of the planet was lit at each of Mariner 10’s close approaches. This made observation of both sides of the planet impossible,[110] and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet’s surface.[111]

On March 27, 1974, two days before its first flyby of Mercury, Mariner 10's instruments began registering large amounts of unexpected ultraviolet radiation in the vicinity of Mercury. This led to the tentative identification of Mercury's moon. Shortly afterward, the source of the excess UV was identified as the star 31 Crateris, and Mercury's moon passed into astronomy's history books as a footnote.

The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury, the closest of which took it to within 327 km of the surface.[112] At the first close approach, instruments detected a magnetic field, to the great surprise of planetary geologists—Mercury’s rotation was expected to be much too slow to generate a significant dynamo effect. The second close approach was primarily used for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data were obtained. The data revealed that the planet’s magnetic field is much like the Earth’s, which deflects the solar wind around the planet. However, the origin of Mercury’s magnetic field is still the subject of several competing theories.[113]

Just a few days[quantify] after its final close approach, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Since its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the probe to shut itself down on March 24, 1975.[114] Mariner 10 is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to Mercury every few months.[115]

MESSENGER

Main article: MESSENGER
MESSENGER being prepared for launch

A second NASA mission to Mercury, named MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on August 3, 2004, from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station aboard a Boeing Delta 2 rocket. It made a fly-by of the Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 in order to place it onto the correct trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury.[116] A first fly-by of Mercury occurred on January 14, 2008, and a second on October 6.[117] A third is scheduled for September 29, 2009. Most of the hemisphere not imaged by Mariner 10 has been or will be mapped during these fly-bys. The probe will then enter an elliptical orbit around the planet in March 2011; the nominal mapping mission is one terrestrial year.[117]

The mission is designed to shed light on six key issues: Mercury’s high density, its geological history, the nature of its magnetic field, the structure of its core, whether it really has ice at its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from. To this end, the probe is carrying imaging devices which will gather much higher resolution images of much more of the planet than Mariner 10, assorted spectrometers to determine abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and devices to measure velocities of charged particles. Detailed measurements of tiny changes in the probe’s velocity as it orbits will be used to infer details of the planet’s interior structure.[26]

BepiColombo

Main article: BepiColombo

The European Space Agency is planning a joint mission with Japan called BepiColombo, which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere[118]. A Russian Soyuz rocket will launch the bus carrying the two probes in 2013 from ESA's Guiana Space Center to take advantage of its equatorial location.[118] As with MESSENGER, the BepiColombo bus will make close approaches to other planets en route to Mercury for orbit-changing gravitational assists, passing the Moon and Venus and making several approaches to Mercury before entering orbit.[118] A combination of chemical and ion engines will be used, the latter thrusting continuously for long intervals.[119][118] The spacecraft bus will reach Mercury in 2019.[119] The bus will release the magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit, then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit. Both probes will operate for a terrestrial year.[118]

The mapper probe will carry an array of spectrometers similar to those on MESSENGER, and will study the planet at many different wavelengths including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray. Apart from intensively studying the planet itself, mission planners hope to use the probe's proximity to the Sun to test the predictions of General Relativity theory with improved accuracy.[120]

The mission is named after Giuseppe (Bepi) Colombo, the scientist who first determined the nature of Mercury’s spin-orbit resonance and who was involved in the planning of Mariner 10’s gravity-assisted trajectory to the planet in 1974.[27]

Notes

  1. ^ 1/30 of a degree is the fractional equivalent to 2.1 arcminutes.
  2. ^ Some sources precede the cuniform transcription with "MUL". "MUL" is a cuneiform sign that was used in the Sumerian language to designate a star or planet, but it is not considered part of the actual name. The "4" is a reference number in the Sumero-Akkadian transliteration system to designate which of several syllables a certain cuneiform sign is most likely designating.

References

  1. ^ "mercurial". Merriam-Webster Online. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mercurial. Retrieved on 2008-06-12. 
  2. ^ Yeomans, Donald K. (April 7, 2008). "HORIZONS System". NASA JPL. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Mercury Fact Sheet". NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. November 30, 2007. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/mercuryfact.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 
  4. ^ "The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter". 2009-04-03. http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif. Retrieved on 2009-04-03.  (produced with Solex 10 written by Aldo Vitagliano; see also Invariable plane)
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Munsell, Kirk; Smith, Harman; Harvey, Samantha (February 25, 2008). "Mercury: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. NASA. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mercury&Display=Facts. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  6. ^ a b Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Archinal, B. A.; A’hearn, M. F.; et.al. (2007). "Report of the IAU/IAGWorking Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 90: 155–180. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y. Retrieved on 2007-08-28. 
  7. ^ a b c Margot, L.J.; Peale, S. J.; Jurgens, R. F.; Slade, M. A.; Holin, I. V. (2007). "Large Longitude Libration of Mercury Reveals a Molten Core". Science 316: 710–714. doi:10.1126/science.1140514. PMID 17478713. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...316..710M. 
  8. ^ Pluto was once considered the smallest, but, as of 2008, it is classified as a dwarf planet.
  9. ^ Jose Wudka (1998-09-24). "Precession of the perihelion of Mercury". Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of California, Riverside. http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node98.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-04. 
  10. ^ "Mercury magnetic field". C. T. Russell & J. G. Luhmann. http://www-spc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/merc_mag/. Retrieved on 2007-03-16. 
  11. ^ "Background Science". European Space Agency. http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/category/index.cfm?fcategoryid=4586. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  12. ^ a b c Dunne, J. A. and Burgess, E. (1978). "Chapter One". The Voyage of Mariner 10 — Mission to Venus and Mercury. NASA History Office. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-424/ch1.htm. 
  13. ^ Duncan, John Charles (1946). Astronomy: A Textbook. Harper & Brothers. pp. 125. "The symbol for Mercury represents the Caduceus, a wand with two serpents twined around it, which was carried by the messenger of the gods." 
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h Strom, Robert G.; Sprague, Ann L. (2003). Exploring Mercury: the iron planet. Springer. ISBN 1852337311. 
  15. ^ "Mercury". U.S. Geological Survey. May 8, 2003. http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/BrowseTheGeologicSolarSystem/MercuryBack.html. Retrieved on 2006-11-26. 
  16. ^ Lyttleton, R. A. (1969). "On the Internal Structures of Mercury and Venus". Astrophysics and Space Science 5 (1): 18. doi:10.1007/BF00653933. 
  17. ^ Gold, Lauren (May 3, 2007). "Mercury has molten core, Cornell researcher shows". Chronicle Online (Cornell University). http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/May07/margot.mercury.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-12. 
  18. ^ a b Finley, Dave (May 3, 2007). "Mercury's Core Molten, Radar Study Shows". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. http://www.nrao.edu/pr/2007/mercury/. Retrieved on 2008-05-12. 
  19. ^ Spohn, Tilman; Sohl, Frank; Wieczerkowski, Karin; Conzelmann, Vera (2001). "The interior structure of Mercury: what we know, what we expect from BepiColombo". Planetary and Space Science 49 (14–15): 1561–1570. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00093-9. Bibcode: 2001P&SS...49.1561S. 
  20. ^ Gallant, R. 1986. The National Geographic Picture Atlas of Our Universe. National Geographic Society, 2nd edition.
  21. ^ J.D. Anderson, et al (July 10, 1996). "Shape and Orientation of Mercury from Radar Ranging Data". Icarus (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology) 124: 690. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.0242. 
  22. ^ Schenk, P.; Melosh, H. J.;. "Lobate Thrust Scarps and the Thickness of Mercury’s Lithosphere". Abstracts of the 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 1994: 1994LPI....25.1203S. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994LPI....25.1203S. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 
  23. ^ a b c d Benz, W.; Slattery, W. L.; Cameron, A. G. W. (1988). "Collisional stripping of Mercury’s mantle". Icarus 74 (3): 516–528. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90118-2. 
  24. ^ a b Cameron, A. G. W. (1985). "The partial volatilization of Mercury". Icarus 64 (2): 285–294. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(85)90091-0. 
  25. ^ Weidenschilling, S. J. (1987). "Iron/silicate fractionation and the origin of Mercury". Icarus 35 (1): 99–111. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(78)90064-7. 
  26. ^ a b Grayzeck, Ed. "MESSENGER Web Site". Johns Hopkins University. http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  27. ^ a b "BepiColombo". ESA Science & Technology. European Space Agency. http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=30. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  28. ^ Staff (February 28, 2008). "Scientists see Mercury in a new light". Science Daily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080201093149.htm. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  29. ^ Blue, Jennifer (April 11, 2008). "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature". US Geological Survey. http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/. Retrieved on 2008-04-11. 
  30. ^ a b Dunne, J. A. and Burgess, E. (1978). "Chapter Seven". The Voyage of Mariner 10 — Mission to Venus and Mercury. NASA History Office. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-424/ch7.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 
  31. ^ Strom, Robert (September 1979). "Mercury: a post-Mariner assessment". Space Science Review Volume 24: 3–70. 
  32. ^ Broadfoot, A. L.; S. Kumar, M. J. S. Belton, and M. B. McElroy (July 12, 1974). "Mercury's Atmosphere from Mariner 10: Preliminary Results". Science Vol. 185 (No. 4146): pp.166–169. doi:10.1126/science.185.4146.166. PMID 17810510. 
  33. ^ Staff (August 5, 2003). "Mercury". U.S. Geological Survey. http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/BrowseTheGeologicSolarSystem/MercuryBack.html. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  34. ^ Head, James W.; Solomon, Sean C. (1981). "Tectonic Evolution of the Terrestrial Planets". Science 213 (4503): 62–76. doi:10.1126/science.213.4503.62. PMID 17741171. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/213/4503/62. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  35. ^ Jefferson Morris, "Laser Altimetry", Aviation Week & Space Technology Vol 169 No 18, 10 Nov. 2008, p. 18: "Mercury's crust is more analogous to a marbled cake than a layered cake."
  36. ^ a b c d e f g Spudis, P. D. (2001). "The Geological History of Mercury". Workshop on Mercury: Space Environment, Surface, and Interior, Chicago: 100. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001mses.conf..100S. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 
  37. ^ Shiga, David (January 30, 2008). "Bizarre spider scar found on Mercury's surface". NewScientist.com news service. http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13257-bizarre-spider-scar-found-on-mercurys-surface.html. 
  38. ^ a b L. V. Ksanfomality (2006). "Earth-based optical imaging of Mercury". Advances in Space Research 38: 594. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.071. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2006AdSpR..38..594K&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=461152a03222956. 
  39. ^ Schultz, Peter H.; Gault, Donald E. (1975). "Seismic effects from major basin formations on the moon and Mercury". Earth, Moon, and Planets 12 (2): 159–175. doi:10.1007/BF00577875. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975Moon...12..159S. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. 
  40. ^ Wieczorek, Mark A.; Zuber, Maria T. (2001). "A Serenitatis origin for the Imbrian grooves and South Pole-Aitken thorium anomaly". Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (E11): 27853–27864. doi:10.1029/2000JE001384. http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000JE001384.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-05-12. 
  41. ^ Denevi, B. W.; Robinson, M. S. (2008). "Albedo of Immature Mercurian Crustal Materials: Evidence for the Presence of Ferrous Iron". Lunar and Planetary Science 39: 1750. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008LPI....39.1750D. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 
  42. ^ a b c R.J. Wagner et al. (2001). "Application of an Updated Impact Cratering Chronology Model to Mercury's Time-Stratigraphic System". Workshop on Mercury: Space Environment, Surface, and Interior, Chicago: 106. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2001mses.conf..106W&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=4613707b1d22308. 
  43. ^ Dzurisin, D. (October 10, 1978). "The tectonic and volcanic history of Mercury as inferred from studies of scarps, ridges, troughs, and other lineaments". Journal of Geophysical Research 83: 4883–4906. doi:10.1029/JB083iB10p04883. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978JGR....83.4883D. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 
  44. ^ Van Hoolst, Tim; Jacobs, Carla (2003). "Mercury’s tides and interior structure". Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (E11): 7. doi:10.1029/2003JE002126. 
  45. ^ Prockter, Louise (2005). Ice in the Solar System. Volume 26. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest. 
  46. ^ Murdock, T. L.; Ney, E. P. (1970). "Mercury: The Dark-Side Temperature". Science 170 (3957): 535–537. doi:10.1126/science.170.3957.535. PMID 17799708. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/170/3957/535. Retrieved on 2008-04-09. 
  47. ^ John S. Lewis (2004). Physics and Chemistry of the Solar System. Academic Press. pp. 461. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ERpMjmR1ErYC&pg=RA1-PA461&lpg=RA1-PA461&dq=solar-constant+mercury+-wikipedia+-wiki+-encyclopedia&source=web&ots=5jprP6dXYk&sig=iJEN0OU01yxgxnZhPcG17z-exYw&hl=en#PRA1-PA461,M1. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 
  48. ^ Ingersoll, Andrew P.; Svitek, Tomas; Murray, Bruce C. (November 1992). "Stability of polar frosts in spherical bowl-shaped craters on the moon, Mercury, and Mars". Icarus 100 (1): 40–47. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(92)90016-Z. Bibcode: 1992Icar..100...40I. 
  49. ^ Slade, MA; Butler, BJ; Muhleman, DO (1992). "Mercury radar imaging — Evidence for polar ice". Science 258 (5082): 635–640. doi:10.1126/science.258.5082.635. PMID 17748898. 
  50. ^ Williams, David R. (June 2, 2005). "Ice on Mercury". NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/ice/ice_mercury.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  51. ^ a b c Rawlins, K; Moses, JI; Zahnle, KJ (1995). "Exogenic Sources of Water for Mercury's Polar Ice". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 27: 1117. Bibcode: 1995DPS....27.2112R. 
  52. ^ Mercury's Atmosphere: A Surface-Bounded Exosphere Publication: Space Science Reviews, Volume 131, Issue 1-4, pp. 161-186 Publication Date: 08/2007 DOI: 10.1007/s11214-007-9260-9
  53. ^ Hunten, D. M.; Shemansky, D. E.; Morgan, T. H.; The Mercury atmosphere, In: Mercury (A89-43751 19-91). University of Arizona Press (1988), pp. 562–612
  54. ^ Planetary News: Mercury July 3, 2008
  55. ^ Zurbuchen, Thomas H. et al (July 2008). "MESSENGER Observations of the Composition of Mercury’s Ionized Exosphere and Plasma Environment". Science 321 (5885): 90–92. doi:10.1126/science.1159314. PMID 18599777. 
  56. ^ Instrument Shows What Planet Mercury Is Made Of Newswise, Retrieved on July 6, 2008.
  57. ^ a b c d e Beatty, J. Kelly; Petersen, Carolyn Collins; Chaikin, Andrew (1999). The New Solar System. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521645875. 
  58. ^ Seeds, Michael A. (2004). Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond (4th ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0534421113. 
  59. ^ Williams, David R. (January 6, 2005). "Planetary Fact Sheets". NASA National Space Science Data Center. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html. Retrieved on 2006-08-10. 
  60. ^ a b c Staff (January 30, 2008). "Mercury’s Internal Magnetic Field". NASA. http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/image.php?page=2&gallery_id=2&image_id=152. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  61. ^ Gold, Lauren (May 3, 2007). "Mercury has molten core, Cornell researcher shows". Cornell University. http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/May07/margot.mercury.html. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  62. ^ Christensen, Ulrich R. (2006). "A deep dynamo generating Mercury's magnetic field". Nature 444: 1056–1058. doi:10.1038/nature05342. 
  63. ^ Spohn, T.; Sohl, F.; Wieczerkowski, K.; Conzelmann, V. (2001). "The interior structure of Mercury: what we know, what we expect from BepiColombo". Planetary and Space Science 49 (14–15): 1561–1570. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00093-9. 
  64. ^ Espenak, Fred (April 21, 2005). "Transits of Mercury". NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/catalog/MercuryCatalog.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 
  65. ^ Samantha Harvey (April 24, 2008). "Weather, Weather, Everywhere?". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=725. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  66. ^ S. Biswas (2000). Cosmic Perspectives in Space Physics. Springer. pp. 176. 
  67. ^ Liu, Han-Shou; O'Keefe, John A. (1965). "Theory of Rotation for the Planet Mercury". Science 150 (3704): 1717. doi:10.1126/science.150.3704.1717. PMID 17768871. 
  68. ^ Correia, Alexandre C.M; Laskar, Jacques (2009). "Mercury's capture into the 3/2 spin-orbit resonance including the effect of core-mantle friction". Icarus. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.12.034. http://arxiv.org/abs/0901.1843. Retrieved on 2009-03-03. 
  69. ^ Correia, Alexandre C. M.; Laskar, Jacques (2004). "Mercury’s capture into the 3/2 spin–orbit resonance as a result of its chaotic dynamics". Nature 429: 848–850. doi:10.1038/nature02609. 
  70. ^ Baum, Richard; Sheehan, William (1997). In Search of Planet Vulcan, The Ghost in Newton's Clockwork Machine. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-45567-6. 
  71. ^ Clemence, G. M. (October 1947). "The Relativity Effect in Planetary Motions". Reviews of Modern Physics 19 (4): 361–364. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.19.361. 
  72. ^ Gilvarry, J. J. (1953). "Relativity Precession of the Asteroid Icarus" (subscription required). Physical Review 89 (5): 1046. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.89.1046. http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v89/i5/p1046_1. Retrieved on 2008-05-22. 
  73. ^ Anonymous. "6.2 Anomalous Precession". Reflections on Relativity. MathPages. http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s6-02/6-02.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-22. 
  74. ^ a b Espenak, Fred (July 25, 1996). "Twelve Year Planetary Ephemeris: 1995–2006". NASA Reference Publication 1349. NASA. http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/TYPE/mercury2.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  75. ^ Baumgardner, Jeffrey; Mendillo, Michael; Wilson, Jody K. (2000). "A Digital High-Definition Imaging System for Spectral Studies of Extended Planetary Atmospheres. I. Initial Results in White Light Showing Features on the Hemisphere of Mercury Unimaged by Mariner 10". The Astronomical Journal 119: 2458–2464. doi:10.1086/301323. 
  76. ^ John Walker. "Mercury Chaser's Calculator". Fourmilab Switzerland. http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/3planets/elongation.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-29.  (look at 1964 and 2013)
  77. ^ "Mercury Elognation and Distance". http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/Mercury.txt. Retrieved on 2008-05-30.  —Numbers generated using the Solar System Dynamics Group, Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System.
  78. ^ a b c Patrick Kelly, ed. (2007). Observer's Handbook 2007. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. ISBN 0-9738109-3-9. 
  79. ^ Mercury Closest Approaches to Earth generated with:
    1. Solex 10 (Text Output file)
    2. Gravity Simulator charts
    3. JPL Horizons 1950-2200
    (3 sources are provided to prevent {{OR}} concerns and to support general long-term trends)
  80. ^ Tunç Tezel (January 22, 2003). "Total Solar Eclipse of 2006 March 29". Department of Physics at Fizik Bolumu in Turkey. http://www.physics.metu.edu.tr/~aat/TSE2006/TSE2006.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-24. 
  81. ^ Espenak, Fred (1996). "NASA Reference Publication 1349; Venus: Twelve year planetary ephemeris, 1995–2006". Twelve Year Planetary Ephemeris Directory. NASA. http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/TYPE/venus2.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-24. 
  82. ^ Schaefer, Bradley E. (May 2007). "The Latitude and Epoch for the Origin of the Astronomical Lore in MUL.APIN". American Astronomical Society Meeting 210, #42.05 (American Astronomical Society). http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/abs/2007AAS...210.4205S. 
  83. ^ Hunger, Hermann; Pingree, David (1989). "MUL.APIN: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform". Archiv für Orientforschung (Austria: Verlag Ferdinand Berger & Sohne Gesellschaft MBH) 24: 146. 
  84. ^ Staff (2008). "MESSENGER: Mercury and Ancient Cultures". NASA JPL. http://btc.montana.edu/messenger/elusive_planet/ancient_cultures_2.php. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  85. ^ H.G. Liddell and R. Scott; rev. H.S. Jones and R. McKenzie (1996). Greek–English Lexicon, with a Revised Supplement (9th edition ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 690 and 1646. ISBN 0-19-864226-1. 
  86. ^ Antoniadi, Eugène Michel; Translated from French by Moore, Patrick (1974). The Planet Mercury. Shaldon, Devon: Keith Reid Ltd. pp. 9–11. 
  87. ^ Kelley, David H.; Milone, E. F.; Aveni, Anthony F. (2004). Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0387953108. 
  88. ^ Pujari, R.M.; Kolhe, Pradeep; Kumar, N. R. (2006). Pride of India: A Glimpse Into India's Scientific Heritage. Samskrita Bharati. ISBN 8187276274. 
  89. ^ Bakich, Michael E. (2000). The Cambridge Planetary Handbook. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521632803. 
  90. ^ Milbrath, Susan (1999). Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore and Calendars. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292752261. 
  91. ^ Sinnott, RW; Meeus, J (1986). "John Bevis and a Rare Occultation". Sky and Telescope 72: 220. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986S&T....72..220S. 
  92. ^ Ferris, Timothy (2003). Seeing in the Dark: How Amateur Astronomers. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0684865807. 
  93. ^ a b Colombo, G.; Shapiro, I. I.. "The Rotation of the Planet Mercury". SAO Special Report #188R. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965SAOSR.188.....C. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  94. ^ Holden, E. S. (1890). "Announcement of the Discovery of the Rotation Period of Mercury [by Professor Schiaparelli]". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 2 (7): 79. doi:10.1086/120099. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1890PASP....2...79H. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 
  95. ^ Merton E. Davies, et al (1978). "Surface Mapping". Atlas of Mercury. NASA Office of Space Sciences. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-423/surface.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 
  96. ^ Evans, J. V.; Brockelman, R. A.; Henry, J. C.; Hyde, G. M.; Kraft, L. G.; Reid, W. A.; Smith, W. W. (1965). "Radio Echo Observations of Venus and Mercury at 23 cm Wavelength". Astronomical Journal 70: 487–500. doi:10.1086/109772. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965AJ.....70..486E/0000487.000.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  97. ^ Moore, Patrick (2000). The Data Book of Astronomy. New York: CRC Press. p. 483. ISBN 0750306203. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&as_brr=3&q=kotelnikov+1962+mercury&btnG=Search+Books. 
  98. ^ Butrica, Andrew J. (1996). "Chapter 5". To See the Unseen: A History of Planetary Radar Astronomy. NASA History Office, Washington D.C.. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4218/ch5.htm. 
  99. ^ Pettengill, G. H.; Dyce, R. B. (1965). "A Radar Determination of the Rotation of the Planet Mercury". Nature 206 (1240): 451–2. doi:10.1038/2061240a0. 
  100. ^ Mercury at Eric Weisstein's 'World of Astronomy'
  101. ^ Murray, Bruce C.; Burgess, Eric (1977). Flight to Mercury. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231039964. 
  102. ^ Colombo, G. (1965). "Rotational Period of the Planet Mercury". Nature 208: 575. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.071. 
  103. ^ Davies, Merton E. et al (October 1976). "Mariner 10 Mission and Spacecraft". SP-423 Atlas of Mercury. NASA JPL. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-423/mariner.htm. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  104. ^ Dantowitz, R. F.; Teare, S. W.; Kozubal, M. J. (2000). "Ground-based High-Resolution Imaging of Mercury". Astronomical Journal 119: 2455–2457. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.071. http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2000AJ....119.2455D&db_key=AST. 
  105. ^ Harmon, J. K. et al (2007). "Mercury: Radar images of the equatorial and midlatitude zones". Icarus 187: 374. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.026. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Icar..187..374H. 
  106. ^ a b Dunne, J. A. and Burgess, E. (1978). "Chapter Four". The Voyage of Mariner 10 — Mission to Venus and Mercury. NASA History Office. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-424/ch4.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. 
  107. ^ "Mercury". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. May 5, 2008. http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mercury&Display=OverviewLong. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 
  108. ^ Leipold, M.; Seboldt, W.; Lingner, S.; Borg, E.; Herrmann, A.; Pabsch, A.; Wagner, O.; Bruckner, J. (July 1996). "Mercury sun-synchronous polar orbiter with a solar sail". Acta Astronautica 39 (1): 143–151. doi:10.1016/S0094-5765(96)00131-2. 
  109. ^ Phillips, Tony (October 1976). "NASA 2006 Transit of Mercury". SP-423 Atlas of Mercury. NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/20oct_transitofmercury.html. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  110. ^ "BepiColumbo - Background Science". European Space Agency. http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/category/index.cfm?fcategoryid=4586. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 
  111. ^ Tariq Malik (August 16, 2004). "MESSENGER to test theory of shrinking Mercury". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2004-08-16-mercury-may-shrink_x.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  112. ^ Merton E. Davies, et al (1978). "Mariner 10 Mission and Spacecraft". Atlas of Mercury. NASA Office of Space Sciences. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-423/mariner.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 
  113. ^ Ness, Norman F. (March 1978). "Mercury - Magnetic field and interior". Space Science Reviews 21: 527–553. doi:10.1007/BF00240907. Bibcode: 1978SSRv...21..527N. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1978SSRv...21..527N. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  114. ^ Dunne, J. A. and Burgess, E. (1978). "Chapter Eight". The Voyage of Mariner 10 — Mission to Venus and Mercury. NASA History Office. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-424/ch8.htm. 
  115. ^ Grayzeck, Ed (April 2, 2008). "Mariner 10". NSSDC Master Catalog. NASA. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1973-085A. Retrieved on 2008-04-07. 
  116. ^ "MESSENGER Engine Burn Puts Spacecraft on Track for Venus". SpaceRef.com. 2005. http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=18956. Retrieved on 2006-03-02. 
  117. ^ a b "Countdown to MESSENGER's Closest Approach with Mercury". Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. January 14, 2008. http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/gallery/sciencePhotos/image.php?gallery_id=2&image_id=115. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 
  118. ^ a b c d e "ESA gives go-ahead to build BepiColombo". European Space Agency. February 26, 2007. http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMC8XBE8YE_index_0.html. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 
  119. ^ a b Nic Fleming (January 18, 2008). "Star Trek-style ion engine to fuel Mercury craft". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2008/01/18/scimerc118.xml. Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 
  120. ^ "Objectives". European Space Agency. February 21, 2006. http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31350. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 

External links

This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.
Find more about Mercury on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity
Solar System portal
v • d • e
The Solar System
The Sun Mercury Venus The Moon Earth Phobos and Deimos Mars Ceres The asteroid belt Jupiter Moons of Jupiter Saturn Moons of Saturn Uranus Moons of Uranus Moons of Neptune Neptune Moons of Pluto Pluto Moons of Haumea Haumea Makemake The Kuiper Belt Dysnomia Eris The Scattered Disc The Oort Cloud
The Sun · Mercury · Venus · Earth · Mars · Ceres · Jupiter · Saturn · Uranus · Neptune · Pluto · Haumea · Makemake · Eris
See also astronomical objects, the Solar System's list of objects, sorted by size, the list of minor planets, or the Solar System Portal
v • d • e
Mercury
Astrometry
Transits
Earth · Jupiter · Mars · Saturn · Uranus · Venus
Mercury as photographed by Mariner 10
Exploration
Geography
Geology
Other topics

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)"
Personal tools
Languages